🔊 Important One Liners on Electric Charges 🔊
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▫️ If an object is attracted by another charged body, the first object may be oppositely charged or not charged because we know both an uncharged object and an oppositely charged object are attracted by another charged object.

▫️ If an object is positively charged it loses some of its electrons. The mass of an electron is 9.11*10^-31 kg. So, if a positively charged body loses ‘n’ number of electrons, it mass decrease by the amount n*9.11E^-31kg.

▫️ Though gold is a costly metal it is used in electroscope because of the property malleability. This means very thin and light sheets can be formed from gold simply by hammering or rolling and hence the deflection of the light gold plates increases.

▫️ The divergence of the plates of the Gold-leaf oscilloscope depends only on the presence of a charge, not on the quality of charge i.e. positive or negative. So, if the charge changes from positive to negative and vice versa the degree of divergence of the plates remains the same.

▫️ The same charges repel each other. So, they try to maintain maximum distance from each other and hence they try to remain at the outer surface of an object. If the charge remains on the inner surface or throughout the body, they will repel each other with greater force.

▫️ The human body is a good conductor and hence the charge produced by friction flew through his body to the ground. We can tackle the problem simply by holding the brass rod with the help of some insulated holder.

▫️ If the apparatus is initially in contact with some positively charged body and then comes in contact with another ▫️ charged body and if the divergence increases we can deduce that the second body is also positively charged. If the divergence decreases then the second body must be negatively charged.

▫️ According to electrostatic series, glass is situated above silk. So, if the glass is rubbed with silk, the positive charge on glass and negative charge on silk is produced. Similarly, we can predict what is the nature of charge if we rub two di-electric substances together.

▫️ 1 Coulomb means 3*10^9 Electro Static Unit of charge. Coulomb and ESU are two different units of charge and their conversion formula is necessary. Coulomb is the unit of charge in the SI system and esu is the unit of charge in the CGS system.

▫️ The two spheres are oppositely charged by the same amount. So if they come in contact, both of their charges are neutralized. So they become uncharged and don’t attract or repel each other.

🛑𝐒𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐭 𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐬/𝐌𝐧𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐬
╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍
🔰Sperm pathway through male
reproductive tract :-

"𝗦𝗘𝗩𝗘𝗡 𝗨𝗣" 🍺🍻
𝗦eminiferous tubules
𝗘pididymis
𝗩as deferens
𝗘jaculatory duct
𝗡othing
𝗨rethra
𝗣enis

🔰Hypothalamus General Functions :-
"𝗟𝗔𝗧𝗘 " 🏃💨
𝗟ibido
𝗔ppetite
𝗧emperatute
𝗘motion

🔰Functions of kidney :-
"𝗔 𝗪𝗘𝗧 𝗕𝗘𝗗 "💦
𝗔cid -Base balance
𝗪ater remove
𝗘rythropiesis
𝗧oxin removal
𝗕lood pressure control
𝗘lectrolyte balance
𝗗 Vitamin D activation

╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍╍

...

🔴MENSTRUAL CYCLE 🔴

♣︎ It occurs in monkeys, apes and human beings.
♣︎ Cycle consists of 3 phases-menstrual, proliferative and secretory phase.
♣︎Blood flows in the last few days of the cycle. The broken endometrium is passed out during
menstruation.
♣︎Female does not permit copulation during menstrual phase of the cycle.

🔵OESTROUS CYCLE 🔵

♣︎It occurs in non primates like cow, sheep, rat, deer, dog, tiger etc.
♣︎ It consists of a short period of oestrous or heat. it is 12-24 hours in cow followed by anoestrous or passive period.

♣︎Blood does not flow in this cycle. The broken endometrium is reabsorbed.

♣︎ Female permits copulation only during oestrous period.

♣︎Both in plants and animals, hormones are responsible for the transition between different
phases of life cycle.

★Interaction between hormones and environmental factors regulate the
reproductive processes.

[C]🟠 SENESCENCE PHASE 🟠 -

●It is the end of reproductive phase.
Old age ultimately leads to death

📗📒SEXUAL REPRODUCTION📕📘

●Involves formation of male and female gamete by two individuals of the opposite sex.

●Offspring produced by fusion of male and female gametes not identical to each other or to the parents.

●All sexually reproducing organisms share a similar pattern of reproduction.

●In sexual reproduction, fusion of male and female gametes results in offspring that are not identical to parents.

🟦DIFFERENT PHASES IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION🟦

★[A]★ 🔴JUVENILE PHASE 🔴

★The period between birth and sexual maturity is called juvenile phase.

★In plants it is known as vegetative phase.The end of juvenile/vegetative phase marks the beginning of the reproductive phase.

[B]🟣 REPRODUCTIVE PHASE 🟣

● Some plants show flowering in particular season and some other flowers in all seasons.

●Some other plants like bamboo species flowers once in life time (after 50-100 years),

●Strobilanthus kunthiana (neelakuranji), flowers once in 12 years.

●The female placental animals exhibit cyclic change in activities ovaries and accessary glands as well as hormone during the reproductive phase.

🟦GAMETE TRANSFER 🟦

●In majority of organisms, male gametes are motile and females
gametes are non-motile, except in fungi and algae in which both gametes are motile.

● In simple plants like algae, fungi, bryophytes and pteridophytes water is the medium through which male and female gametes moves.

●The number of male gametes are much more than number of female gametes as most of male gametes fail to reach the female gametes.

● In higher plants pollen grains are carrier of male gametes and ovule has eggs.
● Pollen grains must be transferred from anther to stigma to facilitate fertilisation.

● The transfer of pollen
grains from anther to stigma is called pollination.

★Pollination may be self (anther to stigma of same flower) or cross (anther to stigma of different flower).

★Pollen grains germinate on stigma to produce pollen tube that delivers the male gametes near the ovule.

■FERTILISATION ■– The fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization or syngamy.
★It results in the formation of diploid zygote.

★The process of development of new organisms without fertilisation of female gametes is called parthenogenesis.

★ For example honey bee, rotifers, and lizards

👌👌Tricks for Conversions in Organic Chemistry

✅Haloalkanes can give you every possible functional group. They can also help you in increasing the chain size. So you might want to convert your starting material to haloalkanes and then go to the desired product

✅Remember the series of oxidation/reduction: Hydrocarbons (with various substituents) can be oxidised to alcohols, then appropriate carbonyl compounds and lastly carboxylic acids (or their derivatives)

✅Strong oxidizing agents are KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7

✅Mild oxidising agents depending on the situation are CrO4, Ammoniacal AgNO3, Benedicts Solution, Fehling’s solution, Cu or CuO at 573K, Bromine water etc.

✅Any carboxylic acid derivative can be converted back to the carboxylic acid by hydrolysis.

✅There are possibilities of hydride and methyl to get the most stable intermediate (carbocation/free radical)

✅A most common reaction, if your starting material is an alkane, is free-radical halogenation.

✅Saytzeff/Markovnikov's rules must be kept in mind while dealing with alkenes (they are based on the electron displacement effects only)

✅Decarboxylation and ozonolysis could go-to methods for decreasing the number of carbon atoms

✅Grignard reagent gives you the much-needed Alkyl nucleophile, which can be used at appropriate places.

⬜⬜⬜☆ SUGAR☆ ⬜⬜⬜


■ Blood Sugar 》》 Glucose


■ Table Sugar 》》Sucrose


■ Milk Sugar 》》Lactose


■ fruit Sugar 》》 fructare


■ Cane Sugar 》》Sucrose


■ Brain Sugar 》》 Galactose


■ Sweetest Sugar 》》fructose

ALGAE

■ chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic

■habitats: moist stones, soils and wood

■occur in association with
• fungi – lichen
• animals – sloth bear

▪︎ form and size- highly variable

▪︎Vegetative reproduction - fragmentation.

▪︎Asexual reproduction - different types of spores, common – zoospores

▪︎ Sexual reproduction - fusion of two gametes.

▪︎ half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried by algae

▪︎increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate environment

▪︎ paramount importance as primary producers of energy-rich compounds

🟦FORM AND SIZE

★ unicellular - Chlamydomonas
★ colonial form – Volvox
★ filamentous - Ulothrix and Spirogyra.
★ massive plant bodies – kelps


🟫 TYPE OF GAMETE

● isogamous flagellated and similar in size

●non-flagellated and similar in size – Spirogyra

■ anisogamous
gametes dissimilar in size

■ oogamous – Volvox, Fucus


🟩USEFUL TO MANKIND

● Porphyra, Laminaria and Sargassum and 70 species of marine algae are used as food.

● algin (brown algae) and carrageen (red algae) produce large amounts of hydrocolloids

●Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to grow microbes and in preparations of ice-creams and jellies

● Chlorella rich in proteins is used as food supplement even by space travellers

🔰PLANT KINGDOM🔰

■SCIENTISTS
★ Linnaeus
▪︎Gave Artificial classification system

★George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker
▪︎Gave Natural classification systems.

📌CLASSIFICATION WITHIN ANGIOSPERMS

🟫ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

●used only gross superficial morphological characters- habit, colour, number and shape of leaves, etc.

● mainly on vegetative characters or on the androecium structure

●separated the closely related species since they were based on a few characteristics

● Equal weightage to vegetative (more easily affected by environment) and sexual characteristics

🟪 NATURAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

● based on natural affinities among the organisms

● considered both internal and external structures - ultrastructure, anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry.

🟩WATER HYACINTH🟩

☆ (Terror of Bengal)

★One of the most invasive weeds
Grows wherever there is standing water Drains oxygen from water- leads to death of fishes.

☆Introduced in India because of its pretty flowers & shape of leaves
Vegetative propagation occurs at a phenomenal rate

●Asexual reproduction is the most common method of reproduction in organisms having simpler body like in algae and fungi but during unfavorable condition they shift to sexual
reproduction.

💚CHLOROPHYCEAE💚

■ Chlorella ■ Spirogyra,
■ Volvox ■ Ulothrix
■chara ■ Chlamydomonas,
■Cladophora

🤎PHAEOPHYCEAE 🤎

■ Ectocarpus ■kelp,
■Fucus ■ Laminaria
■ Dictyota ■Sasagassum.

❤️RHODOPHYCEAE ❤️

■ Gracilaria ■Gelidium ■Porphyra, ■Polysiphonia

💜BRYOPHYTES 💜

☆LIVERWORTS 💙
■ Marchantia

☆Mosses💙
■ Funaria ■Sphagnum

🧡PTERIDOPHYTES 🧡
★HOMOSPOROUS
■ Fern ■ Equisetum

★ HETEROSPOROUS
■ Salvinia ■Selaginella ■Lycopodium ■Pteris, ■Dryopteris ■ Adiantum, ■Psilotum.

💛GYMNOSPERMS 💛
■ Cycas ■pinus
■Ginkgo ■Sequoia ■Cedrus

💚CHLOROPHYCEAE💚

■ Chlorella   ■ Spirogyra,
■ Volvox       ■ Ulothrix
■chara          ■ Chlamydomonas,
■Cladophora

🤎PHAEOPHYCEAE 🤎

■ Ectocarpus   ■kelp,
■Fucus             ■ Laminaria
■ Dictyota        ■Sasagassum.

❤️RHODOPHYCEAE ❤️

■ Gracilaria  ■Gelidium      ■Porphyra, ■Polysiphonia

💜BRYOPHYTES 💜

☆LIVERWORTS 💙
■ Marchantia

☆Mosses💙
■ Funaria    ■Sphagnum

🧡PTERIDOPHYTES 🧡
★HOMOSPOROUS
■ Fern    ■ Equisetum

★ HETEROSPOROUS
■ Salvinia        ■Selaginella ■Lycopodium ■Pteris, ■Dryopteris    ■ Adiantum, ■Psilotum.

💛GYMNOSPERMS 💛
■ Cycas  ■pinus
■Ginkgo ■Sequoia ■Cedrus

Major Organic Chemistry Functional Groups