New PG-MPCE-16-26-36
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New PG-MPCE-16-26-36
Definitions of Research by various Psychologists:
The word Research is composed of 2 Syllables - Re (Again, a New or Over again) and Search (examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe).
The Research simply means ' a search for Knowledge '.
The term Research refers to systematic method consisting of enunciating the Problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solution (s) towards the concerned Problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.
One can define Research for Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
According to
1) Redman and Mory - Research as a systemtised effort to gain knowledge.
2) Grinnell, 1993 - a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
3) Clifford Woody - Research comprises defining and redifining problems; formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
4) D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson define Research as " the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge AIDS in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.
5) Kerlinger (1973) - Research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relationship about various phenomena.
6) Burns (1994) - Research as a systematic investigation to find answers to a Problem.
The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English - Research as a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.
Encyclopedia of Social science - Research as the manipulation of generalising to extend, connect or verify knowledge... "Manipulation incorporates experimentation adopted for the purpose of arriving at generalisation."
Scientific Research is a systematic and objective attempt to provide answers to certain questions.
It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
The word Research is composed of 2 Syllables - Re (Again, a New or Over again) and Search (examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe).
The Research simply means ' a search for Knowledge '.
The term Research refers to systematic method consisting of enunciating the Problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solution (s) towards the concerned Problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.
One can define Research for Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
According to
1) Redman and Mory - Research as a systemtised effort to gain knowledge.
2) Grinnell, 1993 - a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
3) Clifford Woody - Research comprises defining and redifining problems; formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
4) D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson define Research as " the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge AIDS in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.
5) Kerlinger (1973) - Research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relationship about various phenomena.
6) Burns (1994) - Research as a systematic investigation to find answers to a Problem.
The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English - Research as a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.
Encyclopedia of Social science - Research as the manipulation of generalising to extend, connect or verify knowledge... "Manipulation incorporates experimentation adopted for the purpose of arriving at generalisation."
Scientific Research is a systematic and objective attempt to provide answers to certain questions.
It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
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Research Methods Syllabus in Psychology
Criteria of Good Research:
1) Purpose of Research should be clearly defined and common concepts that are used should be operationally defined.
2) The Research procedure should be precisely planned, focused and appropriately described in order to enable other researcher to do research for further advancement.
3) Research design should be carefully planned to generate results to maintain objectivity.
4) The Research Report should be as much as possible Frank enough to gauge effects of the findings.
5) Data Analysis in the Research report should be adequate enough to reveal it's significance and the method of Analysis employed be appropriate.
6) Validity and Reliability of data should be examined Carefully.
1) Purpose of Research should be clearly defined and common concepts that are used should be operationally defined.
2) The Research procedure should be precisely planned, focused and appropriately described in order to enable other researcher to do research for further advancement.
3) Research design should be carefully planned to generate results to maintain objectivity.
4) The Research Report should be as much as possible Frank enough to gauge effects of the findings.
5) Data Analysis in the Research report should be adequate enough to reveal it's significance and the method of Analysis employed be appropriate.
6) Validity and Reliability of data should be examined Carefully.
Objectives of Good Research:
1) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. (Exploratory Research Studies)
2) To Portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or group (Descriptive Research Studies)
3) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (Diagnostic Research Studies)
4) To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between Variables (Hypothesis-testing research Studies/ Experimental Studies)
1) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. (Exploratory Research Studies)
2) To Portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or group (Descriptive Research Studies)
3) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (Diagnostic Research Studies)
4) To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between Variables (Hypothesis-testing research Studies/ Experimental Studies)
Qualities of Good Research:
1) Systematic
2) Empirical
3) Valid and Verifiable
4) Logical
5) Develops theories and Principles
6) Replicable
1) Systematic
2) Empirical
3) Valid and Verifiable
4) Logical
5) Develops theories and Principles
6) Replicable
Steps involved in carrying out Research Process:
Research process consists of series of actions and steps needed for conducting scientific research.
1) Identification of the Problem
2) Review of Literature
3) Formulating a Hypothesis
4) Identifying, Manipulating and controlling Variables
5) Formulating a Research design
6) Constructing Devices for Observation and Measurement
7) Sample Selection and Data Collection
8) Data Analysis and Interpretation
9) Drawing Conclusions
10) Preparation of Report and Publication
Research process consists of series of actions and steps needed for conducting scientific research.
1) Identification of the Problem
2) Review of Literature
3) Formulating a Hypothesis
4) Identifying, Manipulating and controlling Variables
5) Formulating a Research design
6) Constructing Devices for Observation and Measurement
7) Sample Selection and Data Collection
8) Data Analysis and Interpretation
9) Drawing Conclusions
10) Preparation of Report and Publication
Definitions of Reliability:
Reliability is the degree of consistency and precision or accuracy of the test.
In other way, Reliability is the consistency of measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with same subjects.
A measure is considered Reliable if a person score on the same test given twice is similar.
It is important to remember that reliability is not measured, it is estimated.
According to
a) Anastasi (1957) - The Reliability of the test refers to the consistency of the scores obtained by the individual on different occasions or with different sets of equivalent items.
b) Stodola and Stordahl (1972) - The Reliability of a test can be defined as the correlation between 2 or more sets of scores of equivalent tests from the same group of individuals.
c) Guilford (1954) - Reliability is the proportion of the true Variance in obtained test scores.
Reliability is the degree of consistency and precision or accuracy of the test.
In other way, Reliability is the consistency of measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with same subjects.
A measure is considered Reliable if a person score on the same test given twice is similar.
It is important to remember that reliability is not measured, it is estimated.
According to
a) Anastasi (1957) - The Reliability of the test refers to the consistency of the scores obtained by the individual on different occasions or with different sets of equivalent items.
b) Stodola and Stordahl (1972) - The Reliability of a test can be defined as the correlation between 2 or more sets of scores of equivalent tests from the same group of individuals.
c) Guilford (1954) - Reliability is the proportion of the true Variance in obtained test scores.
Methods of Estimating or Calculating Reliability:
1) External Consistency Procedures:
A) Test Re-test Reliability
B) Parallel Forms Reliability
2) Internal Consistency Procedures:
A) Split Half Reliability
B) Kuder-Richardson Estimate of Reliability
C) Cronbach's Alpha
1) External Consistency Procedures:
A) Test Re-test Reliability
B) Parallel Forms Reliability
2) Internal Consistency Procedures:
A) Split Half Reliability
B) Kuder-Richardson Estimate of Reliability
C) Cronbach's Alpha
Validity and it's types:
There are various definitions of Validity such as
According to
Standard for educational and psychological testing (1985, 1999): - " A test is valid to the extent that drawn inferences drawn from it are appropriate, meaning and useful".
Cronbach (1951) - "Validity is the extent to which test measures what it purports to measure".
Anastasi (1988) - " The Validity of a test concerns what the test measures and how well it does so".
Freeman (1971) - " An index of validity shows the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure when compared with accepted criteria".
Types of Validity:
1) Face validity
2) Content validity
3) Construct validity
a) Convergent validity
b) Discriminate validity
4) Criterion-related validity
5) Predictive validity
6) Concurrent validity
7) Internal validity
8) External validity
There are various definitions of Validity such as
According to
Standard for educational and psychological testing (1985, 1999): - " A test is valid to the extent that drawn inferences drawn from it are appropriate, meaning and useful".
Cronbach (1951) - "Validity is the extent to which test measures what it purports to measure".
Anastasi (1988) - " The Validity of a test concerns what the test measures and how well it does so".
Freeman (1971) - " An index of validity shows the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure when compared with accepted criteria".
Types of Validity:
1) Face validity
2) Content validity
3) Construct validity
a) Convergent validity
b) Discriminate validity
4) Criterion-related validity
5) Predictive validity
6) Concurrent validity
7) Internal validity
8) External validity
Various Threats of Internal Validity:
Internal Validity is the most fundamental validity because it concerns the logic of the relationships between the Independent variable and Dependent variable.
1) History
2) Maturation
3) Repeated Testing
4) Statistical Regression
5) Instrumentation
6) Selection bias
7) Experimenter Bias
8) Mortality
9) Interaction of Selection and Maturation, Selection and History.
10) Confounding
11) Diffusion
Internal Validity is the most fundamental validity because it concerns the logic of the relationships between the Independent variable and Dependent variable.
1) History
2) Maturation
3) Repeated Testing
4) Statistical Regression
5) Instrumentation
6) Selection bias
7) Experimenter Bias
8) Mortality
9) Interaction of Selection and Maturation, Selection and History.
10) Confounding
11) Diffusion
Various Threats of External Validity:
External Validity relates to whether or not the results of the study can be applied to the real world.
1) Aptitude-Treatment - Interaction
2) Situations
3) Pre-Test effects
4) Post-Test effects
5) Rosenthal effects
External Validity relates to whether or not the results of the study can be applied to the real world.
1) Aptitude-Treatment - Interaction
2) Situations
3) Pre-Test effects
4) Post-Test effects
5) Rosenthal effects
Variables and it's types:
Variables are qualities, properties or characteristics of persons, things or situations that change or vary.
According to
Chin and Kramer - Variables are concepts at different levels of abstraction that are concisely defined to promote their measurement or manipulation within study.
Webster - Variable is a thing that is changeable or a quantity that may have a number of different values.
Kerlinger (1986) - Variable is a property that taken as different values.
D'mato (1970) - Variables can be defined as those attributes of objects, events, things and beings which can be measured.
Postman and Egan (1949) - Variable is a characteristic or attribute that can take on number of values.
Types of Variables:
A) Stimulus, Organism and Response Variables
B) Independent and Dependent variables
C) Extraneous and Confounding Variables
D) Active and Attribute variables
E) Quantitative and Categorical variables
Quantitative variables are divided into 2 types:
a) Continuous and
b) Discrete
Variables are qualities, properties or characteristics of persons, things or situations that change or vary.
According to
Chin and Kramer - Variables are concepts at different levels of abstraction that are concisely defined to promote their measurement or manipulation within study.
Webster - Variable is a thing that is changeable or a quantity that may have a number of different values.
Kerlinger (1986) - Variable is a property that taken as different values.
D'mato (1970) - Variables can be defined as those attributes of objects, events, things and beings which can be measured.
Postman and Egan (1949) - Variable is a characteristic or attribute that can take on number of values.
Types of Variables:
A) Stimulus, Organism and Response Variables
B) Independent and Dependent variables
C) Extraneous and Confounding Variables
D) Active and Attribute variables
E) Quantitative and Categorical variables
Quantitative variables are divided into 2 types:
a) Continuous and
b) Discrete
A Continuous Variable is one which is capable of being measured in any arbitrary degree of fineness or exactness.
E.g: Age, Height, Intelligence, Reaction Time, etc.
Opposite definition of Continuous is Discreet Variables.
E.g: Age, Height, Intelligence, Reaction Time, etc.
Opposite definition of Continuous is Discreet Variables.
An Active variable is a variable that can be manipulated. These are also called Experimental Variables.
E.g:- Methods of Teaching, Rewards, giving instructions, etc.
Opposite definition for Active is Attribute Variable which cannot be manipulated but can be measured by Experimenter.
E.g:- Intelligence, Aptitudes, Socio-economic status, education, etc.
E.g:- Methods of Teaching, Rewards, giving instructions, etc.
Opposite definition for Active is Attribute Variable which cannot be manipulated but can be measured by Experimenter.
E.g:- Intelligence, Aptitudes, Socio-economic status, education, etc.