What are Bergmann’s rule’s explanation and examples?
The general explanation for Bergmann’s rule is attributed to the importance of the surface area to volume ratio. In order to reduce heat loss, warm-blooded animals in colder climates have an advantage in the reduction of the surface area to volume ratio.
For example, bears, wolves and foxes living in Northern parts of Eurasia are larger than sub-species from the Central and Southern Asia. Or Amur tigers from the Russian Far East are often twice larger than tigers from the Southeast Asia and Sumatra.
This phenomenon is sometimes considered a trend for animal species in general, not just warm-blooded animals.
Recent studies have indicated that turtles and salamanders also tend to follow Bergmann's rule, with exceptions concentrated within lizards and snakes.
But the generality of this rule still remains a question, as many exceptions to it are known. This reflects both the uncertainty in science and the diversity of nature.
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The general explanation for Bergmann’s rule is attributed to the importance of the surface area to volume ratio. In order to reduce heat loss, warm-blooded animals in colder climates have an advantage in the reduction of the surface area to volume ratio.
For example, bears, wolves and foxes living in Northern parts of Eurasia are larger than sub-species from the Central and Southern Asia. Or Amur tigers from the Russian Far East are often twice larger than tigers from the Southeast Asia and Sumatra.
This phenomenon is sometimes considered a trend for animal species in general, not just warm-blooded animals.
Recent studies have indicated that turtles and salamanders also tend to follow Bergmann's rule, with exceptions concentrated within lizards and snakes.
But the generality of this rule still remains a question, as many exceptions to it are known. This reflects both the uncertainty in science and the diversity of nature.
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What is Kleiber’s law?
In the 1930s the Swiss born biologist Max Kleiber (1893-1976) ⬆️ studied how much energy different animals expend at rest, and noticed something curious. A human weighs about 10 times more than a cat. But rather than expending 10 times the energy of a resting tabby, we only spend 6 times as much.
❗️Kleiber was thus the first to notice that energy expenditure follows a 3/4 power law. What this means is that if you double the size of an animal, it will use about 2^3/4, or about 1.7 times as much energy.
ℹ️ In a sense, this law states that larger animals have a more efficient metabolism than the small ones.
ℹ️ According to some modern scientists, Kleiber’s law works as long as it is limited to describing only individual groups of organisms, such as bacteria, fish and mammals. But as soon as we switch from one group to another – for instance from bacteria to invertebrates, it can be no longer applied.
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In the 1930s the Swiss born biologist Max Kleiber (1893-1976) ⬆️ studied how much energy different animals expend at rest, and noticed something curious. A human weighs about 10 times more than a cat. But rather than expending 10 times the energy of a resting tabby, we only spend 6 times as much.
❗️Kleiber was thus the first to notice that energy expenditure follows a 3/4 power law. What this means is that if you double the size of an animal, it will use about 2^3/4, or about 1.7 times as much energy.
ℹ️ In a sense, this law states that larger animals have a more efficient metabolism than the small ones.
ℹ️ According to some modern scientists, Kleiber’s law works as long as it is limited to describing only individual groups of organisms, such as bacteria, fish and mammals. But as soon as we switch from one group to another – for instance from bacteria to invertebrates, it can be no longer applied.
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What is deep-sea gigantism?
While on land larger animals can be met in areas with cold climate, a similar trend is observed among see creatures depending on the depth.
The tendency of the sea creatures to be larger in deep-sea waters than representatives of the same species living in the shallow waters is defined as deep sea-gigantism.
The abnormal growth in the size of deep-sea animals can be explained by the principles of the Bergmann’s rule and the Kleiber’s law. In colder deep-sea waters animals tend to increase the body mass and metabolism efficiency.
One of the most common illustrations of deep-sea gigantism is the colossal squid ⬆️ that is believed to be able to weigh up to 700 kg (over 1,500 pounds) and grow to the length of 14 meters (45 feet). Other examples are Japanese spider crabs ⬆️ (that can grow to gigantic sizes of about twelve meters and weigh around 20 kilograms), giant isopods, sea slugs, sponges, worms, sea spiders.
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While on land larger animals can be met in areas with cold climate, a similar trend is observed among see creatures depending on the depth.
The tendency of the sea creatures to be larger in deep-sea waters than representatives of the same species living in the shallow waters is defined as deep sea-gigantism.
The abnormal growth in the size of deep-sea animals can be explained by the principles of the Bergmann’s rule and the Kleiber’s law. In colder deep-sea waters animals tend to increase the body mass and metabolism efficiency.
One of the most common illustrations of deep-sea gigantism is the colossal squid ⬆️ that is believed to be able to weigh up to 700 kg (over 1,500 pounds) and grow to the length of 14 meters (45 feet). Other examples are Japanese spider crabs ⬆️ (that can grow to gigantic sizes of about twelve meters and weigh around 20 kilograms), giant isopods, sea slugs, sponges, worms, sea spiders.
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What are Gloger’s and Rensch's rules?
Gloger's rule is an ecogeographical rule that links animal coloration with climatic variation.
It is named after Constantin W.L. Gloger (1803-1863)⬆️, a German zoologist, who in 1833 was one of the first to describe correlations between the pigmentation of animals and temperature.
ℹ️ In its modern version, the rule states: birds and mammals should be darker in humid and warm areas compared to colder and drier areas.
The term ‘Gloger's rule' was coined by a German biologist Bernhard Rensch (1900-1990) ⬆️ (on the right) in 1929.
Rensch's rule explains the relationship between the extent of sexual size dimorphism between genders.
Across species within a lineage, size dimorphism will increase with increasing body size when the male is the larger sex, and decrease with increasing body size when the female is the larger sex.
Examples of phylogenetic lineages that appear to follow this rule include primates, pinnipeds, and artiodactyls.
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Gloger's rule is an ecogeographical rule that links animal coloration with climatic variation.
It is named after Constantin W.L. Gloger (1803-1863)⬆️, a German zoologist, who in 1833 was one of the first to describe correlations between the pigmentation of animals and temperature.
ℹ️ In its modern version, the rule states: birds and mammals should be darker in humid and warm areas compared to colder and drier areas.
The term ‘Gloger's rule' was coined by a German biologist Bernhard Rensch (1900-1990) ⬆️ (on the right) in 1929.
Rensch's rule explains the relationship between the extent of sexual size dimorphism between genders.
Across species within a lineage, size dimorphism will increase with increasing body size when the male is the larger sex, and decrease with increasing body size when the female is the larger sex.
Examples of phylogenetic lineages that appear to follow this rule include primates, pinnipeds, and artiodactyls.
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What is Gloger’s rule explanation?
Colour variation associated with Gloger’s rule is mainly due to differences in melanin pigmentation.
Melanins, the most common pigment in birds and mammals, come in two main types:
🔘 eumelanins, responsible for black and various shades of grey,
and
🟤 pheo-melanins, yielding brown, buff and rufous colours.
Mixtures of both produce intermediate shades.
Climatic variables correlate in different ways with the deposition of both melanin types. In dry and warm areas only deposition of eumelanins is reduced, while in very cold areas both types of melanins are diminished but the effect on pheomelanin is more marked. This results in pale coloration at higher latitudes where temperatures are low, darker and more intense colours in humid and warm places and pale reddish coloration in warm areas with low rainfall.
Camouflage, photoprotection, protection against parasites and pleiotropic effects have been suggested as four main causes of the rule.
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Colour variation associated with Gloger’s rule is mainly due to differences in melanin pigmentation.
Melanins, the most common pigment in birds and mammals, come in two main types:
🔘 eumelanins, responsible for black and various shades of grey,
and
🟤 pheo-melanins, yielding brown, buff and rufous colours.
Mixtures of both produce intermediate shades.
Climatic variables correlate in different ways with the deposition of both melanin types. In dry and warm areas only deposition of eumelanins is reduced, while in very cold areas both types of melanins are diminished but the effect on pheomelanin is more marked. This results in pale coloration at higher latitudes where temperatures are low, darker and more intense colours in humid and warm places and pale reddish coloration in warm areas with low rainfall.
Camouflage, photoprotection, protection against parasites and pleiotropic effects have been suggested as four main causes of the rule.
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What is the most popular food in the world nowadays?
🔻 If we are talking about food products different studies include in their top ratings such products as:
✔️ grains, including wheat, rice and corn 🌾🌽
✔️ eggs 🥚
✔️ potatoes 🥔
✔️ meat 🥩
✔️ apples 🍏🍎
🔻 If by food we mean dishes, the top of the list usually consists of:
✔️ pizza 🍕
✔️ bread, including tortillas 🍞🥖
✔️ pasta 🍝
✔️ burger 🍔
✔️ sushi 🍣
✔️ noodles 🍜
✔️ croissant 🥐
✔️ cookies 🍪
ℹ️ Recently, pizza and pasta have traditionally been put by surveys at the top of the most popular food in the world, so one can say that the 🇮🇹 Italian cuisine is the world’s most demanded culinary tradition nowadays.
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🔻 If we are talking about food products different studies include in their top ratings such products as:
✔️ grains, including wheat, rice and corn 🌾🌽
✔️ eggs 🥚
✔️ potatoes 🥔
✔️ meat 🥩
✔️ apples 🍏🍎
🔻 If by food we mean dishes, the top of the list usually consists of:
✔️ pizza 🍕
✔️ bread, including tortillas 🍞🥖
✔️ pasta 🍝
✔️ burger 🍔
✔️ sushi 🍣
✔️ noodles 🍜
✔️ croissant 🥐
✔️ cookies 🍪
ℹ️ Recently, pizza and pasta have traditionally been put by surveys at the top of the most popular food in the world, so one can say that the 🇮🇹 Italian cuisine is the world’s most demanded culinary tradition nowadays.
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What are food, calories and nutrients?
🍽 Food is one of the basic necessities of life, it is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism.
🍽 Food contains nutrients, which are essential for the growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues and for the regulation of vital processes. Nutrients provide the energy our bodies need to function.
🍽 A food staple is a food that makes up the dominant part of a population's diet. It varies from place to place, depending on the food sources available, is eaten regularly—even daily—and ideally should supply a major proportion of a person's energy and nutritional needs.
🍽 The energy in food is measured in units called calories.
🍽 Scientists divide nutrients into 6️⃣ major groups:
📍 carbohydrates
📍 fats
📍 proteins
📍 minerals
📍 vitamins
📍 water.
Most foods contain all or most nutrient groups, in different amounts.
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🍽 Food is one of the basic necessities of life, it is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism.
🍽 Food contains nutrients, which are essential for the growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues and for the regulation of vital processes. Nutrients provide the energy our bodies need to function.
🍽 A food staple is a food that makes up the dominant part of a population's diet. It varies from place to place, depending on the food sources available, is eaten regularly—even daily—and ideally should supply a major proportion of a person's energy and nutritional needs.
🍽 The energy in food is measured in units called calories.
🍽 Scientists divide nutrients into 6️⃣ major groups:
📍 carbohydrates
📍 fats
📍 proteins
📍 minerals
📍 vitamins
📍 water.
Most foods contain all or most nutrient groups, in different amounts.
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What are carbohydrates and fats?
📍 Carbohydrates provide energy for the body. Nearly all the carbohydrates we eat come from plants.
They include starches found in cereal grains and plants like potatoes and yams.
Sugars, found in fruits, vegetables, and milk, are also carbohydrates. Sugarcane and sugar beets are grown specifically for their high sugar content.
Many of the starches and sugars we eat have been processed into products, such as flour and corn syrup. These processed carbohydrates are used in cookies, cakes, breads, pastas, and pies.
📍 Fats provide more than twice as much energy as carbohydrates. They also help protect and insulate the body and its internal organs.
Common fats include vegetable oils, such as soybean, cottonseed, and corn oil. They are used in cooking and in the processing of many foods.
Fats that come from animal products include butter and lard. Eggs, milk, cheese, meats, poultry, and fish also contain high levels of fats.
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📍 Carbohydrates provide energy for the body. Nearly all the carbohydrates we eat come from plants.
They include starches found in cereal grains and plants like potatoes and yams.
Sugars, found in fruits, vegetables, and milk, are also carbohydrates. Sugarcane and sugar beets are grown specifically for their high sugar content.
Many of the starches and sugars we eat have been processed into products, such as flour and corn syrup. These processed carbohydrates are used in cookies, cakes, breads, pastas, and pies.
📍 Fats provide more than twice as much energy as carbohydrates. They also help protect and insulate the body and its internal organs.
Common fats include vegetable oils, such as soybean, cottonseed, and corn oil. They are used in cooking and in the processing of many foods.
Fats that come from animal products include butter and lard. Eggs, milk, cheese, meats, poultry, and fish also contain high levels of fats.
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What are proteins and minerals?
📍 Proteins are the body’s chief tissue-builders. They help keep skin, bones, muscles, and blood healthy.
Proteins also help regulate bodily processes, including transporting oxygen and nutrients into and out of cells; the clotting of blood; and the formation of antibodies, which help fight disease.
Animal products, such as beef, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy products, are high in protein. Grains, nuts, and some beans are also protein-rich foods.
ℹ️ Together with carbohydrates and fats, proteins are known as macronutrients, it means that people need these nutrients in large quantities.
📍 Compared to macronutrients, minerals are micronutrients because they are needed in very small quantities.
Minerals provide building materials for the body and help regulate its activities, much as proteins do.
Calcium and phosphorus build strong bones and teeth, iron contributes to healthy blood, and iodine helps keep the thyroid gland working.
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📍 Proteins are the body’s chief tissue-builders. They help keep skin, bones, muscles, and blood healthy.
Proteins also help regulate bodily processes, including transporting oxygen and nutrients into and out of cells; the clotting of blood; and the formation of antibodies, which help fight disease.
Animal products, such as beef, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy products, are high in protein. Grains, nuts, and some beans are also protein-rich foods.
ℹ️ Together with carbohydrates and fats, proteins are known as macronutrients, it means that people need these nutrients in large quantities.
📍 Compared to macronutrients, minerals are micronutrients because they are needed in very small quantities.
Minerals provide building materials for the body and help regulate its activities, much as proteins do.
Calcium and phosphorus build strong bones and teeth, iron contributes to healthy blood, and iodine helps keep the thyroid gland working.
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What are vitamins?
Vitamins are micronutrients that help the body make full use of other nutrients by assisting the chemical reactions that make those nutrients work. They are needed for normal cell function, growth, and development.
There are 1️⃣3️⃣ essential vitamins:
📌 Vitamin A
📌 Vitamin C
📌 Vitamin D
📌 Vitamin E
📌 Vitamin K
📌 Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
📌 Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
📌 Vitamin B3 (niacin)
📌 Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
📌 Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin)
📌 Pantothenic acid (B5)
📌 Biotin (B7)
📌 Folate (folic acid or B9)
Vitamins are grouped into2️⃣ categories:
✔️ The four fat-soluble vitamins - A, D, E, and K – are stored in the body's liver, fatty tissue, and muscles. They are absorbed more easily by the body in the presence of dietary fat.
✔️ The nine water-soluble vitamins – C and all the B vitamins – are not stored in the body and should be consumed on a regular basis. The exception to this is vitamin B12, which can be stored in the liver for many years.
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Vitamins are micronutrients that help the body make full use of other nutrients by assisting the chemical reactions that make those nutrients work. They are needed for normal cell function, growth, and development.
There are 1️⃣3️⃣ essential vitamins:
📌 Vitamin A
📌 Vitamin C
📌 Vitamin D
📌 Vitamin E
📌 Vitamin K
📌 Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
📌 Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
📌 Vitamin B3 (niacin)
📌 Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
📌 Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin)
📌 Pantothenic acid (B5)
📌 Biotin (B7)
📌 Folate (folic acid or B9)
Vitamins are grouped into2️⃣ categories:
✔️ The four fat-soluble vitamins - A, D, E, and K – are stored in the body's liver, fatty tissue, and muscles. They are absorbed more easily by the body in the presence of dietary fat.
✔️ The nine water-soluble vitamins – C and all the B vitamins – are not stored in the body and should be consumed on a regular basis. The exception to this is vitamin B12, which can be stored in the liver for many years.
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Ask Me
What are vitamins? Vitamins are micronutrients that help the body make full use of other nutrients by assisting the chemical reactions that make those nutrients work. They are needed for normal cell function, growth, and development. There are 1️⃣3️⃣ essential…
What are functions of vitamins A, C, D, E, K?
📌 Vitamin A helps form and maintain healthy teeth, bones, soft tissue, mucous membranes, and skin.
📌 Vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid, is an antioxidant that promotes healthy teeth and gums. It helps the body absorb iron, maintain healthy tissue and heal wounds.
📌 Vitamin D is also known as the "sunshine vitamin”. 10-15 minutes of sunshine 3 times a week is enough to produce the body's requirement of vitamin D for most people. It helps the body absorb calcium that we need for the normal development and maintenance of healthy teeth and bones, and maintain proper blood levels of calcium and phosphorus. Without sunshine, it is rather hard to get enough vitamin D from food sources.
📌 Vitamin E is an antioxidant also known as tocopherol. It helps the body form red blood cells and use vitamin K.
📌 Vitamin K is needed because without it, blood would not stick together. Some studies suggest that it is important for bone health.
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📌 Vitamin A helps form and maintain healthy teeth, bones, soft tissue, mucous membranes, and skin.
📌 Vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid, is an antioxidant that promotes healthy teeth and gums. It helps the body absorb iron, maintain healthy tissue and heal wounds.
📌 Vitamin D is also known as the "sunshine vitamin”. 10-15 minutes of sunshine 3 times a week is enough to produce the body's requirement of vitamin D for most people. It helps the body absorb calcium that we need for the normal development and maintenance of healthy teeth and bones, and maintain proper blood levels of calcium and phosphorus. Without sunshine, it is rather hard to get enough vitamin D from food sources.
📌 Vitamin E is an antioxidant also known as tocopherol. It helps the body form red blood cells and use vitamin K.
📌 Vitamin K is needed because without it, blood would not stick together. Some studies suggest that it is important for bone health.
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What are vitamins? Vitamins are micronutrients that help the body make full use of other nutrients by assisting the chemical reactions that make those nutrients work. They are needed for normal cell function, growth, and development. There are 1️⃣3️⃣ essential…
What are functions of B vitamins and of two vitamin-like nutrients?
📌 Vitamin B6 is also called pyridoxine. Vitamin B6 helps form red blood cells and maintain brain function. This vitamin also plays an important role in the proteins that are part of many chemical reactions in the body. The more protein you eat the more pyridoxine your body requires.
📌 Vitamin B12, like the other B vitamins, is important for metabolism. It also helps form red blood cells and maintain the central nervous system.
📌 Biotin (B7) is essential for the metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates, and in the production of hormones and cholesterol.
📌 Niacin (B3) is a vitamin that helps maintain healthy skin and nerves. It also has cholesterol-lowering effects at higher doses.
📌 Folate (B9) works with vitamin B12 to help form red blood cells. It is needed for the production of DNA, which controls tissue growth and cell function. Any woman who is pregnant should be sure to get enough folate. Low levels of folate are linked to birth defects such as spina bifida. Many foods are now fortified with folate in the form of folic acid.
📌 Pantothenic acid (B5) is essential for the metabolism of food. It also plays a role in the production of hormones and cholesterol.
📌 Riboflavin (B2) works with the other B vitamins. It is important for body growth and the production of red blood cells.
📌 Thiamine (B1) helps the body cells change carbohydrates into energy. Getting enough carbohydrates is very important during pregnancy and breastfeeding. It is also essential for heart function and healthy nerve cells.
ℹ️ Some vitamin-like nutrients are also needed by the body such as:
✔️ Choline that helps in normal functioning of the brain and nervous system. Lack of choline can cause swelling in liver.
✔️ Carnitine that helps the body to change fatty acids into energy.
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📌 Vitamin B6 is also called pyridoxine. Vitamin B6 helps form red blood cells and maintain brain function. This vitamin also plays an important role in the proteins that are part of many chemical reactions in the body. The more protein you eat the more pyridoxine your body requires.
📌 Vitamin B12, like the other B vitamins, is important for metabolism. It also helps form red blood cells and maintain the central nervous system.
📌 Biotin (B7) is essential for the metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates, and in the production of hormones and cholesterol.
📌 Niacin (B3) is a vitamin that helps maintain healthy skin and nerves. It also has cholesterol-lowering effects at higher doses.
📌 Folate (B9) works with vitamin B12 to help form red blood cells. It is needed for the production of DNA, which controls tissue growth and cell function. Any woman who is pregnant should be sure to get enough folate. Low levels of folate are linked to birth defects such as spina bifida. Many foods are now fortified with folate in the form of folic acid.
📌 Pantothenic acid (B5) is essential for the metabolism of food. It also plays a role in the production of hormones and cholesterol.
📌 Riboflavin (B2) works with the other B vitamins. It is important for body growth and the production of red blood cells.
📌 Thiamine (B1) helps the body cells change carbohydrates into energy. Getting enough carbohydrates is very important during pregnancy and breastfeeding. It is also essential for heart function and healthy nerve cells.
ℹ️ Some vitamin-like nutrients are also needed by the body such as:
✔️ Choline that helps in normal functioning of the brain and nervous system. Lack of choline can cause swelling in liver.
✔️ Carnitine that helps the body to change fatty acids into energy.
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What are other substances needed for the body’s health?
❗️ Besides carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins, in order to be functional the human’s organism also needs water, oxygen, and fiber.
📍 Some scientists include water in the list of basic nutrients. Water makes up more than half of a human body’s weight. It is involved in most body processes, such as the regulation of temperature, the transporting of nutrients into cells, and the elimination of waste products from cells.
📍 Oxygen is not a nutrient, since it is breathed in and not eaten, but it is essential to life. It permits the release of energy from food inside the body.
📍 Fiber is indigestible material found in most plant foods. It adds bulk to the diet, helping to keep the intestines healthy. Fiber-rich foods include whole grains, dried beans, and fresh fruits and vegetables.
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❗️ Besides carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins, in order to be functional the human’s organism also needs water, oxygen, and fiber.
📍 Some scientists include water in the list of basic nutrients. Water makes up more than half of a human body’s weight. It is involved in most body processes, such as the regulation of temperature, the transporting of nutrients into cells, and the elimination of waste products from cells.
📍 Oxygen is not a nutrient, since it is breathed in and not eaten, but it is essential to life. It permits the release of energy from food inside the body.
📍 Fiber is indigestible material found in most plant foods. It adds bulk to the diet, helping to keep the intestines healthy. Fiber-rich foods include whole grains, dried beans, and fresh fruits and vegetables.
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