👌 Tip @engineer03

👌 Tip @engineer03

ለዛሬ ከ ኮንስትራክሽን ህጎች የተያያዙ...
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መፅሃፍቶች ይዘንላቹ ቀርበናል👆👆👆

🏗 ጥንታዊ ወይንም ባህላዊ የ ግንባታ እቃዎች እነማን ናቸው..
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🔰 Traditional Materials 🔰
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1.stone
2.bricks
3.cement
4.lime
5.timber
እነዚህ ከላይ የተጠቀሱት አንግዲህ ለግንባታ ስራ የምንጠቀማቸው ግብአቶች ናቸዉ...
👁‍🗨እንግዲህ ጥሩ እንጂነር ነኝ የሚል ካለ እንደዚሁም መሆን የሚፈልግ ካለ ስለ ግብአቶቹ በቂ እውቀት ሊኖረው ይገባል።
በዚህ chapter ስለ ግብአቶቹ የሚከተለውን እንመለከታለን
1.Type(አይነት )
2. properties(ባህሪያት )
3.Testes( ፍተሻዎች)
4.uses(ጥቅም )

1. STONES

🔵is a ‘naturally available building material’ which has been used from the early age of civilization.

🔵It is available in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and shape and used as building block.

🔵It has been used to construct small residential buildings to large palaces and temples all over the world.

1.1 Type of Stones

🔉Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in the following three ways:

• Geological

• Physical

• Chemical

⬛️Geological Classification⬛️

🔵Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups—Igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks.

(i) Igneous Rocks:
🔷 These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses from their molten magmatic condition of the material of the earth. ◆Generally igneous rocks are strong and durable.
🔷 Granite, trap and basalt are the rocks belonging to this category, Granites are formed by slow cooling of the lava under thick cover on the top. Hence they have crystalline surface.
🔷The cooling of lava at the top surface of earth results into non-crystalline and glassy texture.
🔷Trap and basalt belong to this category

(ii) Sedimentary Rocks:
🔷Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks disintegrates.
🔷The disintegrated material is carried by wind and water; the water being most powerful
medium.
🔷Flowing water deposits its suspended materials at some points of obstacles to its flow.
🔷These deposited layers of materials get consolidated under pressure and by heat. Chemical agents also contribute to the cementing of the deposits.
🔷The rocks thus formed are more uniform, fine grained and compact intheir nature.
🔷They represent a bedded or stratified structure in general. 🔷Sand stones, lime stones, mud
stones etc. belong to this class of rock.
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(iii) Metamorphic Rocks: 🔷Previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks under go changes due to metamorphic action of pressure and internal heat.
🔷 For example due to metamorphic action granite
becomes greisses, trap and basalt change to schist and laterite, lime stone changes to marble, sand stone becomes quartzite and mud stone becomes slate.

Physical Classification

🔷Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as:

• Stratified rocks

• Unstratified rocks

(i) Stratified Rocks: These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of stratification or cleavage.
🔷They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc.
are the examples of this class of stones.

(ii) Unstratified Rocks: These rocks are not stratified.
🔷They possess crystalline and compactgrains.
They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this type of
rocks.

(iii) Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction only.
🔷The direction need not be parallel to each other as in case of stratified rocks. This type of structure is very common in case of metamorphic rocks.

Chemical Classification

On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify rocks as:

• Silicious rocks

• Argillaceous rocks and

• Calcareous rocks

❇️የውሃ ጋኖች (water supply Reservoir)
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የውሃ ጋኖች ከጥቅማቸው አንፃር ለ ሶስት ይከፈላሉ 
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1-Collector reservoir
2-Service reservoir
3-Supply reservoir
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እያንዳንዱ ጥቅማቸው ምንድነው……
✅1 [Collector reservoir ]
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ይህ የጋን አይነት ዋና ስራው ውሃው ከሚመነጭበት (የገጸ ምድር ወይም የከርሰ ምድር ውሃ) ቦታ ህክምና ከተደረገለት በኋላ የሚቀመጥበት ጋን ነው፡፡ ጥቅሙ የተሰበሰበውን ውሃ ወደተለያዩ ጋኖች እስኪሰራጭ በጊዜያዊነት እንዲቀመጥና ውሃው ለጋኖቹ እንዲደርስ የሚያደርገውን ጉልበት እንዲያገኝ ይረዳዋል፡፡ ብዙን ጊዜ ውሃው ከሚመነጭበት ቦታ አቅራቢያ ይተከላል፡፡ ውሃ ፈሳሽ እንደመሆኑ ብዙን ግዜ ሚፈልቀው ከፍታቸው ካነሱ ቦታዎች ስለሆነ ከሌሎች ጋኖች ይልቅ የዚህ ጋን ከፍታ (elevation) ያንሳል፡፡
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✅2 [Service reservoir]
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ይህ የጋን አይነት በቋሚነት ከcollecter reservoir የተቀበለውን ውሃ የሚያርፍበት ነው፡፡ አሰራሩም ከሌሎቹ ጋኖች ለየት ይላል ፡፡ ውሃው የሚያደርስበትን ግፊት ለመቋቋም የሚያስቸለውን መካች ጉልበት(reaction force) በበቂ ሁኔታ እንዲኖረው ይደረጋል፡፡ በቁመትም በመጠንም ትልቅ ነው፡፡ ወጪ ለመቀነስ ከፍ ካለ ቦታ ይተከላል (ውሃ በ3 አይነት መንገድ ይከፋፈላል
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1-የሞተር ሀይልን በመጠቀም

2-የመሬት የመሳብ ሃይልን (gravity force) በመጠቀም።

3-የሞተር ሃይልንና የመሬት የስበት ሃይልን በማጣመር በመጠቀም እንዲሰራጭ ይደረጋል፡፡
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በአሁን ጊዜ ሶስተኛው አማራጭ በስፋታ አገልግሎት ላይ ይውላል ይህ አማራጭ ከወጪም አንፃር በጣም ተመራጭ ነው ለዚህ ዘዴ ተመራጩ ደግሞ የservice reservoir ከፍ ካለ ቦታላይ መተከል ወሳኝነት አለው፡፡)
ከዚህ ጋን ቀጥታ ለስርጭት ቧንቧ አይገጠምም ምክንያቱም ከጋኑ የሚወጣው ውሃ ከፍተኛ ጉልበት ስላለው የማሰራጫ ቱቦዎችን ሊያፈነዳ ይችላል፡፡ ይህን ችግር ለመፍታት ቀጣዩን የጋን አይነት መገንባት አስፈላጊ ነው፡፡
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✅3.[Supply reservoir]
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የዚህ ጋን ዋና ጥቅም ውሃውን ለስርጭት ወደ ስርጭት ቱቦዎች እንዲገባ ማድረግ ነው፡፡ ከላይ እንደጠቀስኩት ከሰርቪስ ጋን ቀጥታ ወደ ስርጭት ቧንቧ ውሃ አይገባም ምክንያቱም ከፍተኛ ሀይል ስላለው የቧንቧዎቹን የመቆየት አቅም ያሳጥራል ብሎም እስከ ማፈንዳት ያደርሳል፡፡ ይህ እንዳይከሰት የሳፕላይ ጋኖች ይገነባሉ፡፡ ይህ ጋን በቱቦዎቹ የሚያልፈውን ውሃ ግፊት በመቀነስና ፈጥነቱን (velocity) ከ 0.5-2 m/s በማድረግ እና ወደ ቱቦዎቹ የሚገባን ሃይል በመቀነስ (Energy dissipate ) ቱቦዎቹ ላይ የሚደርሰውን ጉዳት ያስወግዳል፡፡ ይህ ጋን ከፍ ባለ ቦታ ይተከላል ነገር ግን ከፍታው ከService reservoir ያነሰ ነው። እናመሰግናለን።
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@engineer03
@engineer03
@engineer03

There is an exam that helps you
#share for anthers

http://t.me/quation

@quation
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Tests on Concrete

✔️The following are some of the important tests conducted on concrete:
1. Slump test.
2. Compaction factor test.
3. Crushing strength test.
1. Slump Test:
This test is conducted to determine the workability of concrete. It needs a slump
cone for test Slump cone is a vessel in the shape of a frustum of a cone with diameter at bottom 200mm and 50mm at top and 300 mm high. This cone is kept over a impervious platform and is filled with concrete in four layers. Each layer is tamped with a 16 mm pointed rod for 25 times. After filling completely the cone is gently pulled up. The decrease in the height of the concrete is called slump. Higher the slump, more workable is the concrete.

2. Compaction Factor Test:
This is another test to identify the workability of concrete. This test is conducted in the laboratory. The test equipment consists of two hoppers and a cylinder fixed to a stand, the dimensions and the distances between the three vessels being standardized.
Vessel A and B are having hinged bottoms whereas cylinder C is having fixed bottom. Top vessel A is filled with the concrete to be tested. As soon as it is filled, the hinged door is opened. Concrete is collected in vessel B. Then the hinged door of B is opened to collect concrete in cylinder C. The concrete in cylinder C is weighted.
Let it be W1.Now cylinder is again filled with the sample of concrete in 50 mm layers, which is compacted by ramming and vibrating. Then the weight of compacted concrete is determined. Let this weight be W2. The ratio W1/W2 is termed as compaction factor.

3. Crushing Strength Test: Metallic moulds of size 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm are used for
casting concrete cubes. Before filling mould, it is properly oiled on its inner surfaces, so that cubes can be easily separated. Fresh cube is filled with concrete to be tested in 3 layers and kept in the room. After 24 hours, cube is removed from the mould and kept under water for curing.
After 28 days of curing cubes are tested in the compression testing machine. In this test cubes are placed over the smooth surface which is in contact with side plates of mould. The crushing load is noted and crushing strength is found as load divided by surface area (150 × 150 mm2).
Code specify the desirable strength of concrete for 3 days and 7 days for quick assessment of strength of concrete.Desirable Properties of Concrete Appropriate quality and quantity of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water should be used so that the green concrete has the following properties:
(a) Desired workability
(b) No segregation in transporting and placing
(c) No bleeding and
(d) No harshness.

Hardened concrete should have
(a) required characteristic strength
(b) minimum dimensional changes
(c) good durability
(d) impermeable
(e) good resistance to wear and tear.

@engineer03

*Stress* vs *strain*
Stress is the ratio of applied force F to a cross section area - defined as "force per unit area".
tensile stress - stress that tends to stretch or lengthen the material - acts normal to the stressed area
compressive stress - stress that tends to compress or shorten the material - acts normal to the stressed area

shearing stress - stress that tends to shear the material - acts in plane to the stressed area at right-angles to
compressive or tensile stress

Tensile or Compressive Stress - Normal Stress

Tensile or compressive stress normal to the plane is usually denoted "normal stress " or "direct stress " and can be
expressed as
σ = F n / A (1)
where
σ = normal stress (Pa (N/m 2 ), psi (lb f /in 2 ))
F n = normal force acting perpendicular to the area (N, lb f)
A = area (m 2 , in 2 )
a kip is an imperial unit of force - it equals 1000 lb f (pounds-force)
1 kip = 4448.2216 Newtons (N) = 4.4482216 kilo Newtons (kN)

A normal force acts perpendicular to area and is developed whenever external loads tends to push or pull the two segments of a body.

Example - Tensile Force acting on a Rod A force of 10 kN is acting on a circular rod with diameter 10 mm . The stress in the rod can be calculated as

σ = (10 10 3 N) / (π ((10 10 -3 m) / 2) 2 )
= 127388535 (N/m 2 )
= 127 (MPa)

Example - Force acting on a Douglas Fir Square Post A compressive load of 30000 lb is acting on short square 6 x 6 in post of Douglas fir. The dressed size of the post is 5.5 x 5.5 in and the compressive stress can be calculated as

σ = (30000 lb) / ((5.5 in) (5.5 in))
= 991 (lb/in 2 , psi)

Shear Stress
Stress parallel to a plane is usually denoted as "shear stress "and can be expressed as

τ = F p / A (2)
where
τ = shear stress (Pa (N/m 2 ), psi (lb f /in 2 ))
F p = shear force in the plane of the area (N, lb f)
A = area (m 2 , in 2 )
A shear force lies in the plane of an area and is developed when external loads tend to cause the two segments of a body to slide over one another.
@engineer03

Go on at discussion group
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የኮንስትራክሽን ፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች ምን ያደርጋሉ?
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8 ቁልፍ ሚናዎች እና ኃላፊነቶች
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1. እንቅስቃሴ እና ሀብት ዕቅድ

እቅድ የፕሮጀክት ቀነ-ገደቦችን ለማሟላት አስፈላጊ ነው ፣ እና ብዙ ፕሮጄክቶች በጥሩ ዕቅድ ምክንያት ይሳካል። በመጀመሪያ እና ከሁሉም በላይ ፣ ጥሩ የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች የፕሮጀክቱን ወሰን ይገልፃሉ እናም የሚገኙትን ሀብቶች ይወስናሉ ፡፡ ጥሩ የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች እንዴት የቡድን ወይም የቡድን አቅሞችን በእውነተኛ ጊዜ ማዋቀር እና መገምገም እንደሚችሉ ያውቃሉ ፡፡

ከዚያ ፕሮጀክቱን ለማስፈፀም እና እድገቱን ለመቆጣጠር ግልፅ እና እጥር ምጥን ዕቅድ ይፈጥራሉ ፡፡ ፕሮጀክቶች በተፈጥሮ ሊተነበዩ የማይችሉ ናቸው ፣ ስለሆነም ጥሩ የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች ፕሮጀክቱ የመጨረሻ ደረጃ ላይ ከመድረሱ በፊት አስፈላጊ ሆኖ ሲገኝ ማስተካከያዎችን እንዴት እንደሚያደርጉ ያውቃሉ ፡፡

2. የፕሮጀክት ቡድን ማደራጀት እና ማነሳሳት

ጥሩ የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች ቡድኖቻቸው በዝርዝር የተመን ሉህዎች ፣ ረጅም ማጣቀሻዎች እና በነጭ ሰሌዳዎች እንዲታሰሩ አያደርጉም። ይልቁንም ቡድኖቻቸውን የፊት እና የመሃል ላይ አደረጉ ፡፡ ቡድኖቻቸውን ሙሉ አቅማቸውን ለማሳካት ግልጽ እና ቀጥተኛ ዕቅዶችን ያዳብራሉ ፡፡ ቢሮክራሲን በመቁጠር ቡድኖቻቸውን ወደ የመጨረሻ ግብ ለመምራት ግልፅ መንገድን ይመራሉ ፡፡

3. የጊዜ አያያዝን መቆጣጠር

ደንበኞች ብዙውን ጊዜ የፕሮጀክቱን ስኬት ወይም ውድቀት በሰዓቱ ማድረሱ ላይ ይፈርዳሉ። ስለዚህ የስምምነት ቀኖችን መገናኘት ድርድር የሚደረግ አይደለም ፡፡ ጥሩ የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች ተጨባጭ ቀነ-ገደቦችን እንዴት ማቀናጀት እንዳለባቸው እና እንዴት ለቡድኖቻቸው በተከታታይ እንዴት መገናኘት እንደሚችሉ ያውቃሉ ፡፡

የሚከተሉትን ውጤታማ በሆነ መንገድ እንዴት ማድረግ እንደሚችሉ ያውቃሉ-

እንቅስቃሴን ይግለጹ
ቅደም ተከተል እንቅስቃሴ
የእንቅስቃሴውን ቆይታ ይገምቱ
መርሐግብር ያዘጋጁ
የጊዜ ሰሌዳ ይኑርህ
4. ወጪ መገመት እና በጀቱን ማጎልበት

ጥሩ የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች አንድን በጀት በተያዘለት በጀት ውስጥ አንድ ፕሮጀክት እንዴት ማቆየት እንደሚችሉ ያውቃሉ ፡፡ ምንም እንኳን አንድ ፕሮጀክት የደንበኞቹን ፍላጎቶች የሚያሟላ እና በሰዓቱ ቢቀርብለት እንኳን ከበጀት በላይ ቢወጣ አሁንም ውድቀት ይሆናል። ጥሩ የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች ብዙ ጊዜ በጀቱን ይገመግማሉ እና ግዙፍ የበጀት አጠቃቀምን ለማስወገድ አስቀድሞ ያቅዱ ፡፡

5. የደንበኞችን እርካታ ማረጋገጥ

በመጨረሻ አንድ ፕሮጀክት ስኬት የሚሆነው ደንበኛው ደስተኛ ከሆነ ብቻ ነው ፡፡ የእያንዳንዱ የፕሮጀክት ሥራ አስኪያጅ ቁልፍ ከሆኑት ኃላፊነቶች አንዱ እርግጠኛ አለመሆንን ለመቀነስ ፣ ማንኛውንም አላስፈላጊ የሆኑ ድንገተኛ ነገሮችን በማስወገድ እና በተቻለ መጠን ደንበኞቻቸውን በፕሮጀክቱ ውስጥ ማሳት ነው ፡፡ ጥሩ የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች ውጤታማ የሆነ ግንኙነትን እንዴት ጠብቆ ማቆየት እና የኩባንያውን ደንበኞች ወቅታዊ ማድረጉን እንዴት ያውቃሉ።

6. የፕሮጄክት ስጋት ትንተና እና ቁጥጥር

ፕሮጀክቱ ትልቅ ከሆነ ፣ የመነሻ ዕቅዱ አካል ያልሆነ መሰናክሎች እና መሰናክሎች የመፍጠር እድሉ ሰፊ ነው። Hiccups መከሰት የማይቀር ነው ፣ ግን ጥሩ የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች ፕሮጀክቱ ከመጀመሩ በፊት እንዴት በጥንቃቄ እና በጥልቀት እንደሚረዳ ፣ እንዴት ሊከሰቱ የሚችሉ ስጋቶችን ለይቶ እንደሚገመግሙ ያውቃሉ ፡፡ ከዛ አደጋዎችን እንዴት ማስወገድ ወይም ቢያንስ የእነሱን ተፅእኖ ለመቀነስ እንደሚችሉ ያውቃሉ ፡፡

7. መሻሻል መከታተል

በመነሻ ደረጃዎች ውስጥ የፕሮጀክት ሥራ አስኪያጆች እና ቡድኖቻቸው የተፈለገውን ውጤት የማስገኘት ግልፅ ራዕይ እና ከፍተኛ ተስፋ አላቸው ፡፡ ሆኖም ፣ ወደ ማጠናቀቂያው መስመር የሚወስደው መንገድ በጭራሽ በጭራሽ በጭራሽ አይደለም ፡፡ ነገሮች በእቅዱ መሠረት የማይሄዱ ከሆነ የፕሮጀክት ሥራ አስኪያጅ ሁለቱንም ወጭዎች እና የቡድን አፈፃፀም መከታተል እና መተንተን እና ሁል ጊዜም የማስተካከያ እርምጃዎችን መውሰድ አለበት።

8. ሪፖርቶችን እና አስፈላጊ ሰነዶችን ማስተዳደር

በመጨረሻም ፣ ልምድ ያላቸው የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች የመጨረሻ ዘገባዎች እና ትክክለኛ ሰነዶች ምን ያህል አስፈላጊ እንደሆኑ ያውቃሉ። ጥሩ የፕሮጀክት አስተዳዳሪዎች ሁሉም የፕሮጄክት መስፈርቶች ተሟልተዋል እንዲሁም የፕሮጀክቶቹ ታሪክ ፣ ምን እንደተደረገ ፣ ማን እንደተሳተፈ እና ለወደፊቱ በተሻለ ምን ሊከናወን እንደሚችል ጨምሮ አጠቃላይ ሪፖርቶችን ማቅረብ ይችላሉ ፡፡
.
⚡አሁኑኑ Join በማረግ እና ለጓደኛዎ እና ለሚያቁት ሁሉ ሼር ያድርጉ።


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👉Briefly explain the functions of shear reinforcement.why minimum shear reinforcement is provided for beams?
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▶️Shear can cause distortion. Distortion leads to high stresses and strains.Hence resistance against shear will meet the requirement to resist the effects of shear.
▶️This is why you should specify some minimum shear reinforcement to avoid damage due to shear.
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👉Allowable settlement (part one)
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▶️The allowable settlement is defined as the acceptable amount of settlement of the structure and it usually includes a factor of safety.
The allowable settlement depends on many factors, including the following:
*The Type of Construction – For example, wood-frame.
buildings with wood siding would be much more tolerant than unreinforced brick buildings.
*The Use of the Structure – Even small cracks in a house might be considered unacceptable, whereas much larger cracks in an industrial building might not even be noticed.
*The Presence of Sensitive Finishes – Tile or other sensitive finishes are much less tolerant of movements.
*The Rigidity of the Structure – If a footing beneath part of a very rigid structure settles more than the others,the structure will transfer some of the load away from the footing.
However, footings beneath flexible structures must settle much more before any significant load transfer occurs.
Therefore, a rigid structure will have less differential
settlement than a flexible one.
*Aesthetic and Serviceability Requirements – The allowable settlement for most structures, especially buildings, will be governed by aesthetic and serviceability requirements, not
structural requirements.
Unsightly cracks, jamming doors and windows, and other similar problems will develop long before the integrity of the structure is in danger.
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Bent up bars: Are the main reinforcements bent at a suitable angle to act as shear reinforcements.
Reinforcements are bent up to the supports/ends where greater compressive force occurs.

Bars Are Bend Near At Support To:

1- To resist shear force .
2-To resist (NBM) adjacent at supports.
3- To increment the strenth of RCC in  slab.
4- Bent Up bar can abate the amount of steel.
5- Bent up bars in slab is more strong form normal slab.
6- Bent up bars sufficiently increase the deformation capacityof slabs as compared to those not having bars bent.
7- By extending bars up to supports, we can also lower the risk of brittle failure due to higher compressive stresses causing the structure to collapse.

SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS (part two)
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The vertical downward movement of the base of a structure is calied settlement and its effect upon the structure depends on
its magnitude, its uniformity, the length of the time over which it takes place, and the nature of the structure itself.
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Foundation settlement may be caused by some or a combination of the following reasons:
1. Elastic compression of the foundation and the underlying soil.
2. Inelastic (or plastic) compression of the undertying soils, which is much larger tban the elastic compression. The
inelastic compression can be predicted by the theory of consolidation.
3. Ground waser lowering. Repeated lowering and raising of water level in loose granular soil tends to compact the soil and cause settlement of the ground surface. Lowering of water level in fine grained soils cause consolidation settlement.
4. Vibrations due to pile driving, blasting and oscillating machineries may cause settlement in deposits of granular soils.
5. Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expansive clays.
6. Ground movement on earth slopes , such as surface
erosion, slow creep or landslide.
7. Other causes such as adjacent excavation, mining
subsidence, underground erosion, etc.
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A certain amount of elastic and inelastic settlement of foundations is unavoidable,and it should be taken into account in design.
Provided the settlement is uniform over the whole area of the building and is not excessive, it does little damage. If, however, the amount of settlement varies at different points under the building, giving rise to what is known as relative or differential settlement, stresses will be set up in the structure.
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These may be relived in the case of brick structure, for example, by the setting up of a large number of cracks at the joints, but in more rigid structures, overstressing of some structural members might occur. It is suggesed that the allowable pressure should be selected such that the maximum settlement of any individual foundation is 2.5 cm.
It has also been suggested that the differential settlement of uniformly loaded continuous foundation and of equally loaded spread foundations of approximately the same size, is unlikely to exceed half the maximum settlement, and that normal structures such as office buildings and flats can satisfactorily withstand differential settlements of about 18 mm between adjacent columns spaced 6 to 8 m apart.
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▶️ Doubly reinforced beam
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👉beams with tension reinforcement only( reinforcement to assist concrete carry tension) are called singly reinforced beams

👉 due to different reasons, it isn't always possible to use singly reinforced beam and it becomes necessary to assist concrete to carry compression too. And beams with both tension and compression reinforcement are called doubly reinforced beams.

▶️ doubly reinforced beams are advantageous over singly reinforced beams for the following reasons :

*Reduces sustained deflection( long term deflection)

* Increases ductility

* Enhances tension mode of failure

* Decreased depth of section, leading to astetics
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How to read contour lines on topographic maps

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