🔆 Beyond-Lithium Batteries: Emerging Alternatives

📍 Context
✅ Rising demand from EVs, storage systems, electronics
✅ Search for safer, cheaper, and abundant alternatives to lithium

🔆 Sodium-Ion Batteries (Na-ion)

📍 About
✅ Similar to lithium-ion, but uses sodium ions (Na⁺)
✅ Charge flow between anode ↔ cathode via electrolyte

📍 Advantages
✅ Abundant & cheap: Sodium widely available globally
✅ Safer: Lower fire risk vs lithium batteries
✅ Better logistics: Easier transport & storage

📍 Limitations
❗ Lower energy density (~100–160 Wh/kg) than lithium

🔆 Fluoride-Ion Batteries (F-ion)

📍 About
✅ Uses fluoride ions (F⁻) as charge carriers

📍 Advantages
✅ Very high energy density: Potential >2000 Wh/kg
✅ Abundant resource: Fluorine widely available

📍 Challenges
❗ Still in early research stage
❗ Issues of stability & material compatibility

🔆 Lithium-Ion Batteries (Current Dominant Tech)

📍 About
✅ Uses lithium ions (Li⁺) between electrodes
✅ Backbone of EVs, mobiles, energy storage

📍 Advantages
✅ High energy density (~150–250 Wh/kg)
✅ Low self-discharge (1.5–2%/month)
✅ Low maintenance

📍 Constraints
❗ Dependence on scarce minerals (lithium, cobalt, nickel)
❗ Supply chain risks & imports
❗ Fire risk & slower charging issues

🔆 Comparative Insight
📍 Energy Density: Fluoride > Lithium > Sodium
📍 Safety: Sodium > Lithium
📍 Availability: Sodium & Fluoride > Lithium

🔆 Significance
✅ Reduces import dependence (critical minerals)
✅ Supports clean energy transition & EV growth
✅ Promotes battery diversification & resilience

📍 Way Forward
✅ Invest in R&D for next-gen batteries
✅ Build domestic supply chains
✅ Focus on safety + sustainability standards

#GS3
#prelims
#science_technology
#science_and_technology

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🔆 Chalukya Dynasty (Deccan Power: 6th–12th Century)

📍 Why in News
✅ Discovery of 1300–1500-year-old temples in Telangana (Krishna river region)
✅ Built in Kadamba Nagara style (Rekha Nagara format)
✅ Inscription ‘Gandaloranru’ (8th–9th century AD) linked to Badami Chalukyas

📍 Overview of Chalukyas
✅ Ruled Deccan plateau (6th–12th century)
✅ Three branches:
• Badami (Western Chalukyas – early phase)
• Eastern Chalukyas (Vengi)
• Western Chalukyas (Kalyani)

🔆 Chalukyas of Badami

📍 Foundation & Expansion
✅ Founded by Pulakesin I (c. 550 CE) → Capital: Badami (Vatapi)
✅ Successor Kirtivarman I expanded kingdom

📍 Golden Phase: Pulakesin II (609–642 CE)
✅ Defeated Harsha at Narmada (checked northern expansion)
✅ Victory recorded in Aihole inscription (Ravikirti)
✅ Defeated Vishnukundins (Deccan)
✅ Visited by Xuanzang
✅ Diplomatic ties with Khosrau II

📍 Decline
❗ Defeated by Narasimhavarman I (capture of Vatapi, c. 642 CE)
❗ Final fall to Dantidurga (c. 750 CE)

🔆 Art & Architecture
📍 Over 150 monuments (450–700 CE) in Malaprabha basin
✅ Key Sites:
• Pattadakal (UNESCO World Heritage)
• Badami (rock-cut caves)
• Aihole (experimental architecture)

📍 Examples
✅ Durga Temple (Aihole)
✅ Lad Khan Temple
✅ Meguti Temple (634 CE)

➡️ Blend of Nagara + Dravida styles

🔆 Polity & Administration
📍 Administrative Units:
✅ Maharashtraka → Rashtraka → Vishaya → Bhoga
✅ Presence of feudatories (Alupas, Gangas, Banas)
✅ Local assemblies & Mahajanas managed local affairs

🔆 Society
✅ Caste system present
✅ Women held political & cultural roles (e.g., Vijayanka)
❗ Sati not prominent (evidence of active widows)

🔆 Religion
✅ Initially Vedic Hinduism → later Shaivism dominant
✅ Sects: Pashupata, Kapalika, Kalamukha
✅ Patronage to Jainism
❗ Buddhism declined

🔆 Army & Economy
📍 Army: Infantry, cavalry, elephants + navy
📍 Coinage:
✅ Gold coins (honnu) with temple, lion, boar symbols
✅ Scripts: Nagari & Kannada

🔆 Key Takeaways
✅ Major Deccan power bridging North–South India
✅ Known for temple architecture evolution
✅ Strong example of early regional administration & culture

#history #prelims #mains

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🔆 CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 MAY 2026

🔆 BANKING & FINANCE

📍 FDI Trends in India
✅ Reserve Bank of India reports Gross FDI: $88.3B, Net FDI: $6.3B
✅ Indicates strong inflows but high repatriation/outflows
✅ Net FDI = Actual addition to domestic capital

📍 ₹2000 Notes Update
✅ 98.47% notes returned to banking system
✅ Still legal tender but limited circulation
✅ Withdrawal = currency management (not demonetisation)

🔆 ECONOMY

📍 GST Collections Hit Record High
✅ ₹2.42 lakh crore (April 2026 – all-time high)
✅ YoY growth: 8.7%
✅ Based on destination principle
✅ Constitutional basis: Art 246A, 269A, 279A

🔆 STATES

📍 Nilgiris Forest Fire Contained
✅ Nilgiris = part of Western Ghats
✅ 1st Biosphere Reserve under UNESCO MAB
✅ Rich biodiversity: lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr

📍 Gig Workers Protection – Karnataka
✅ First state with digital grievance system
✅ Portal: IPGRS for complaint tracking
✅ Ensures transparency & labour rights

📍 Sikkim – Paperless Judiciary
✅ India’s first fully digital judiciary state
✅ Features: e-filing, digital records, faster justice

🔆 NATIONAL

📍 Aarogya Maitri Deployed Globally
✅ Portable healthcare system deployed in Jamaica
✅ Part of India’s HADR diplomacy
✅ Enables rapid medical response in disasters

📍 Citizenship (Amendment) Rules 2026
✅ Digitalisation of OCI + introduction of e-OCI
✅ Mandatory online applications
✅ Minor cannot hold dual passports
✅ Faster immigration via biometric consent

📍 Assistive Tech Standards by BIS
✅ New standards under NLEAP initiative
✅ Focus: mobility aids & inclusive design
✅ Aim: accessibility + tech development

📍 US Returns 657 Antiquities to India
✅ Value: ~$14 million
✅ Includes Avalokiteshvara statue & Dancing Ganesha
✅ Highlights crackdown on cultural smuggling

🔆 AWARDS & RECOGNITIONS

📍 Whitley Awards 2026
✅ Winners: Barkha Subba & Parveen Shaikh
✅ Work: Himalayan salamander & Indian skimmer conservation
✅ Known as “Green Oscars”

🔆 SPORTS

📍 World Athletics Relays 2026
✅ India sends 21-member squad
✅ Event in Gaborone, Botswana
✅ Competing in 5 relay categories

📍 Youngest Palk Strait Swimmer
✅ Ishank Singh (7 yrs) crosses 29 km
✅ Route: Talaimannar → Dhanushkodi
✅ Time: 9 hrs 50 min

🔆 SCHEMES

📍 IS-PCMR Scheme Update
✅ 58 companies approved
✅ Outlay: ₹1,500 crore
✅ Focus: recycling critical minerals (EVs, electronics)
✅ Supports clean energy transition

🔆 RANKS & REPORTS

📍 Global Hepatitis Report 2026
✅ India among top contributors to hepatitis deaths
✅ HBV & HCV → 95% of deaths globally
✅ ~1.34 million deaths (2024)
✅ WHO target: 65% reduction by 2030

🔆 IMPORTANT DAYS

📍 Maharashtra Day (1 May)
✅ Formation of Maharashtra (1960)
✅ Split from Bombay State with Gujarat

🔆 SUMMITS & CONFERENCES

📍 Santa Marta Conference
✅ Focus: transition away from fossil fuels
✅ Introduced global coordination + finance reforms
✅ Linked to COP30 climate process

📍 National Summit on Innovation & Inclusivity
✅ Organised by Health Ministry (Chandigarh)
✅ Focus: digital health, primary care
✅ Launch: Swasth Bharat Portal, JANANI Portal

🔆 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

📍 C-ART Facility (Visakhapatnam)
✅ Coastal Atmospheric Research Testbed
✅ First on East Coast
✅ Tools: Doppler radar, wind lidar

🔆 DEFENCE

📍 INS Mahendragiri Delivered
✅ 6th ship of Project 17A (Nilgiri-class)
✅ Stealth guided-missile frigate
✅ Boosts Aatmanirbhar Bharat in defence

🔆 OBITUARY

📍 Dijo Kappan Passed Away
✅ Noted consumer rights activist (68 yrs)

#CurrentAffairs

🔆 Nyokum Yullo Festival (Arunachal Pradesh)

📍 About the Festival
✅ Celebrated by Nyishi community
✅ Observed in Arunachal Pradesh
✅ Meaning:
• Nyok → Earth/Land
• Kum → Togetherness/Collectiveness

📍 Rituals & Practices
✅ Worship of Nyokum goddess (prosperity & good harvest)
✅ No idol worship; rituals around bamboo structure (Yugung)
✅ Singing & dancing led by head priest (Nyubh)
✅ Guests welcomed with rice paste powder & opo (local drink)

📍 Traditional Attire
✅ Men: Eri cotton robes, bead necklaces, bamboo caps (with feathers/hornbill beak)
✅ Women: Wrap-around skirts, ornaments, bamboo headgear

🔆 About Nyishi Tribe

📍 Distribution
✅ Largest ethnic group in Arunachal Pradesh
✅ Also found in Assam (Sonitpur, North Lakhimpur)

📍 Society & Culture
✅ Patrilineal society; no rigid caste system
✅ Practice of polygyny present
✅ Believe in harmony between man, nature & spirits

📍 Language
✅ Nyishi/Nishi (Sino-Tibetan family)

📍 Occupation
✅ Slash-and-burn (jhum) agriculture, hunting, fishing

📍 Religion
✅ Indigenous Donyi-Polo (Sun–Moon worship)
✅ Also influenced by Hinduism & Christianity

📍 Other Festivals
✅ Boori-Boot (Feb)
✅ Nyokum (Feb)
✅ Longte (April)

📍 Key Takeaways
✅ Important for tribal culture & festivals (Prelims)
✅ Reflects nature-centric belief systems of Northeast India

#prelims
#art_and_culture

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🔆 Sangam Economy (Early Historic South India)

📍 Agriculture
✅ Backbone of the Sangam economy
✅ Major crops: Paddy (rice) and millets
✅ Advanced irrigation:
• Tanks and dams
• Supported farming in non-perennial river systems

📍 Trade
✅ Internal trade flourished through:
📌 Well-maintained roads
📌 Secured marketplaces

✅ External trade:
• Mentioned in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
• Exports: Spices, textiles, precious stones, pearls
• Roman gold coins found in South India confirm Indo-Roman trade

📍 Crafts & Industries
✅ Weaving:
• Major industry
• Fine textiles frequently praised in Sangam literature

✅ Metallurgy:
• Advanced iron and steel production
• Used for tools and weapons

✅ Bead-making:
• Highly developed craft
• Important trade commodity

📍 Urban Centres
✅ Growth driven by thriving trade
✅ Major cities:
• Puhar (Chola)
• Muciri / Muchiri (Chera)
• Madurai (Pandya)

✅ Archaeological evidence (though limited due to continuous habitation) supports Sangam literary accounts

#history #prelims #mains

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🔆 First Battle of Panipat (1526)

📍 Overview
✅ Fought on 21 April 1526 between:
• Babur
• Ibrahim Lodi

✅ Marked the end of Delhi Sultanate and beginning of the Mughal Empire in India

📍 Battle Location
✅ Panipat — strategic gateway to Delhi

🔆 Key Political Causes

📍 Weakness of Lodi Rule
✅ Ibrahim Lodi’s autocratic rule alienated nobles
✅ Poor administration weakened central authority

📍 Factionalism & Noble Revolt
✅ Afghan nobles lost privileges
✅ Internal conflicts weakened resistance

📍 Invitation to Babur
✅ Rebels like Daulat Khan Lodi and Alam Khan invited Babur to intervene

🔆 Battle Snapshot

📍 Forces
✅ Babur: ~10,000–12,000 troops + artillery
✅ Ibrahim Lodi: ~100,000 soldiers + 1000 elephants

📍 Outcome
✅ Ibrahim Lodi killed in battle
✅ Babur secured decisive victory

🔆 Reasons for Babur’s Victory

📍 1. Modern Warfare & Technology
✅ Effective use of:
• Cannons
• Tufang (matchlocks)

➡️ Gunpowder weapons neutralised elephant warfare

📍 2. Tactical Innovation
✅ Tulughma Strategy → flanking & encirclement
✅ Araba System → carts linked as defensive barriers
✅ Use of mantlets to protect gunners

📍 3. Disciplined Army
✅ Smaller but highly organised Timurid force
✅ Better command structure & coordination

📍 4. Weakness of Lodi Forces
✅ Lack of unity among Afghan nobles
✅ Overdependence on elephants & traditional warfare

🔆 Why Panipat Became a Major Battlefield?

📍 Strategic Location
✅ On Grand Trunk Road connecting Central Asia & India

📍 Gateway to Delhi
✅ Control of Panipat meant control over political power

📍 Open Plains
✅ Suitable for cavalry & artillery deployment

📍 Logistical Advantages
✅ Availability of water, food & camp space

🔆 Historical Significance

📍 Political Transition
✅ Ended Lodi dynasty & Delhi Sultanate
✅ Began centralised Mughal rule

📍 Military Transformation
✅ Introduced modern gunpowder warfare in India
✅ Shift from elephant warfare → artillery-based warfare

📍 Administrative Impact
✅ Laid foundation for long-lasting Mughal administration

🔆 Contemporary Relevance

📍 Strategic Lessons
✅ Technology + tactics can outweigh numerical superiority

📍 Political Lesson
✅ Internal divisions can invite external intervention

📍 Leadership Insight
✅ Importance of adaptability & strategic thinking in crises

📍 Key Terms
✅ Tufang: Early matchlock firearm
✅ Tulughma: Mongol-style encirclement tactic
✅ Araba System: Linked-cart defensive formation
✅ Mantlets: Protective shields/screens for soldiers

#history #prelims #mains

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🔆 Methane Alert and Response System (MARS)

📍 Why in News
✅ MARS expanded to monitor coal mines & waste facilities
✅ Triggered after Kanjurmarg Landfill was identified among the world’s top 3 methane-emitting sites

📍 Earlier Coverage
✅ Previously focused only on oil & gas facilities under UNEP’s methane partnership

🔆 About MARS

📍 Meaning
✅ First public global satellite detection & notification system for tracking large methane “super-emitters” worldwide

📍 Nodal Agency
✅ Managed by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) through the International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO)

📍 Launch
✅ Launched at COP27
✅ Venue: Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt

🔆 Objectives & Functions

📍 Key Functions
✅ Detects major methane leaks/emissions using satellites
✅ Sends alerts & notifications to governments and operators
✅ Supports rapid mitigation action

📍 Global Methane Pledge Support
✅ Assists implementation of Global Methane Pledge
➡️ Goal: Reduce methane emissions by 30% below 2020 levels by 2030

🔆 Why Methane Matters?

📍 Importance
✅ Methane is a highly potent greenhouse gas
✅ Causes significantly more warming than CO₂ in the short term

📍 Major Sources
✅ Oil & gas operations
✅ Coal mines
✅ Landfills & waste facilities
✅ Agriculture & livestock

📍 Significance
✅ Enhances global climate monitoring
✅ Promotes accountability & transparency
✅ Helps countries meet climate commitments

#GS3
#prelims
#science_technology
#science_and_technology

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🔆 Hantavirus 🦠

📍 Why in News
✅ Suspected Hantavirus outbreak reported on a Netherlands-based cruise ship
✅ Resulted in multiple deaths and illnesses

🔆 About Hantavirus

📍 Meaning
✅ Group of viruses mainly carried by rodents that can infect humans

📍 Origin of Name
✅ Named after Hantan River region where virus was identified in the 1970s

🔆 Transmission

📍 Main Mode
✅ Inhalation of air contaminated with:
• Rodent urine
• Droppings
• Saliva particles

📍 Rare Transmission
✅ Rodent bites or scratches

📍 Common Carriers
✅ Deer mice
✅ Rats
✅ Other wild rodents

🔆 Diseases Caused

📍 1. Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS)
✅ Severe respiratory illness affecting lungs
✅ Common in North & South America

📍 Symptoms
✅ Fever, fatigue, muscle pain
✅ Later: coughing, breathing difficulty, lung fluid accumulation

📍 Fatality
❗ Mortality rate around 38%

📍 2. Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome (HFRS)
✅ Primarily affects kidneys
✅ Can cause:
• Internal bleeding
• Low blood pressure
• Acute kidney failure

🔆 General Symptoms
✅ Fever & chills
✅ Headache, dizziness
✅ Abdominal pain
✅ Severe breathing problems in advanced stage

🔆 Who is at High Risk?
✅ People exposed to rodent-infested areas
✅ Cleaning enclosed or poorly ventilated places without protection

🔆 Prevention & Treatment

📍 Preventive Measures
✅ Avoid rodent exposure
✅ Maintain cleanliness & hygiene
✅ Use masks & gloves while cleaning contaminated areas

📍 Treatment
❗ No specific cure available
✅ Early diagnosis & supportive medical care improve survival chances

📍 Key Takeaways
✅ Zoonotic disease transmitted mainly through rodents
✅ Important from public health & epidemiology perspective

#GS3
#prelims
#science_technology
#science_and_technology

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🔆 History of Indian Cinema – Quick Revision Notes

📍 Early Beginnings (1896–1910s)
✅ Lumière Brothers (1896): Introduced motion pictures in Bombay.
✅ Save Dada (Harishchandra Bhatavdekar, 1899): Made first Indian short films.
✅ Jamshedjee Madan (1907): Established Elphinstone Picture House, Calcutta.
✅ Universal Studios (1916): Opened first Hollywood agency in India.

📍 Silent Film Era (1910–1930)
✅ First Indian Silent Film: Raja Harishchandra (1913) by Dadasaheb Phalke – Father of Indian Cinema.
✅ Other works – Lanka Dahan (1917), Mohini Bhasmasur.
✅ First Indo-British film: Pundalik (1912) by N.G. Chitre & R.G. Torney.
✅ First Woman Filmmaker: Fatma Begum – Bulbul-e-Paristan (1926).
✅ Censorship Controversy: Bhakta Vidur (1921) banned in Madras.
✅ Popular Studios: Kohinoor Film Co., Phalke’s Hindustan Cinema Co.

📍 Talkies & Colour Films (1930–1950s)
✅ First Talkie: Alam Ara (1931) by Ardeshir Irani; first song – De De Khuda Ke Naam Par.
✅ Studio System: Started with Devdas (1935) by P.C. Barua.
✅ First Colour Film: Sairandhri (1933) (processed in Germany).
✅ First Indigenous Colour Film: Kisan Kanya (1937) by Ardeshir Irani.
✅ First Songless Film: Naujawan (1937) by J.B.H. Wadia.
✅ First Stunt Films: Hunterwali (1935) starring Fearless Nadia.
✅ First South Indian Film: Premsagar (1939) by K. Subrahmanyam.

📍 Milestones & Awards
✅ First Cinemascope Film: Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959) – Guru Dutt.
✅ First 70mm Film: Around the World (1967) – Raj Kapoor.
✅ First 3D Film: My Dear Kuttichathan (Malayalam).
✅ First Sanskrit Film: Adi Shankara – G.V. Iyer.
✅ Dadasaheb Phalke Award (1969): First winner – Devika Rani (Lady of Indian Film).
✅ Swarna Kamal: Best Film of the Year award.
✅ First IFFI: 1952.
✅ First Actress to win Padma Shri: Nargis Dutt.
✅ First Actor with French Chevalier Award: Sivaji Ganesan.
✅ First Film Star CM: M.G. Ramachandran (Tamil Nadu).

📍 Parallel Cinema Movement (1970s–80s)
✅ Directors: Shyam Benegal, Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Mani Kaul, Govind Nihalani.
✅ Focused on realism, social themes, and art cinema.

#prelims
#art_and_culture

@studytoday1
@upsc_art_and_culture

🔆 CURRENT AFFAIRS – 6 MAY 2026

🔆 ECONOMY

📍 India’s Net Direct Tax Collections FY26
✅ Net direct tax collection: ₹23.40 lakh crore
✅ Growth: 5.12% YoY
✅ Personal Income Tax became largest contributor

🔆 STATES

📍 Telangana–L&T Metro Agreement
✅ Telangana acquires 100% stake in Hyderabad Metro Phase-I
✅ Deal size: ~₹15,000 crore
✅ Shift from PPP model to full state ownership

📍 UIDAI–NFSU 5-Year Pact
✅ Collaboration on cybersecurity & digital forensics
✅ Strengthens Aadhaar ecosystem security

🔆 NATIONAL

📍 2 New Semiconductor Units Approved
✅ Cabinet clears projects worth ₹3,936 crore under India Semiconductor Mission
✅ Units in Gujarat (Dholera & Surat)
✅ Focus: GaN displays & semiconductor assembly/testing

📍 SC Expands Definition of Acid Attack Victims
✅ Includes victims of forcible acid ingestion/internal injuries
✅ Brings wider access to RPwD Act benefits
✅ Acid attack remains cognizable & non-bailable under BNS 2023

📍 Supreme Court Judge Strength Increased
✅ Judges increased from 33 → 37 (excluding CJI)
✅ Aim: reduce pendency & improve judicial efficiency

📍 Railway Multitracking Projects Approved
✅ Cost: ₹23,437 crore
✅ Focus: logistics, connectivity & congestion reduction

📍 Ship Repair Facility in Gujarat
✅ State-of-the-art facility approved at Vadinar
✅ Boosts maritime infrastructure & defence support

🔆 INTERNATIONAL

📍 Hantavirus Outbreak
✅ Linked to rodent-borne zoonotic infection
✅ Causes HCPS & HFRS syndromes
✅ No specific cure available

📍 UNGA President Visits India
✅ Annalena Baerbock visited India
✅ Focus: strengthening India–UN engagement
✅ Paid tribute at Rajghat & met EAM S. Jaishankar

🔆 MoUs & AGREEMENTS

📍 JJM 2.0 Reform-Linked MoUs
✅ Signed with Uttarakhand, Karnataka & Tripura
✅ Focus: Gram Panchayat-led water governance
✅ Target: 100% tap water coverage by Dec 2028

🔆 AWARDS & RECOGNITIONS

📍 Pulitzer Prize 2026
✅ Indian journalists R.K. Anand & Suparna Sharma honoured
✅ Awarded for “trAPPed” digital crime investigation
✅ Category: Illustrated Reporting & Commentary

🔆 IMPORTANT DAYS

📍 World Asthma Day 2026 (5 May)
✅ Theme: “Access to anti-inflammatory inhalers for everyone with asthma – still an urgent need.”

🔆 SUMMITS & CONFERENCES

📍 Brain-Computer Interface Conference
✅ Inaugurated by CDS Anil Chauhan
✅ Focus: future warfare & human-machine integration

📍 National Conference on Rare Diseases
✅ Focus on innovation, early diagnosis & collaboration
✅ Financial assistance up to ₹50 lakh per patient

🔆 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

📍 India’s First State-led SpaceTech CoE
✅ Launched in Bengaluru by Karnataka Govt
✅ Bridges research & commercialization in space sector

📍 LR-AShM Missile Test
✅ DRDO successfully tests hypersonic anti-ship missile
✅ Range: ~1,500 km | Speed: up to Mach 10
✅ Advanced glide vehicle + precision targeting

🔆 APPS & PORTALS
📍 Samarth Panchayat Portal
✅ Ministry of Panchayati Raj initiative
✅ Enables Panchayats to monitor tax & non-tax revenue digitally
✅ Supports UPI-based rural tax collection

#CurrentAffairs

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