12th September UPSC current affairs

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🔆 Battle of Saragarhi — 1897

📍 Why in News?
🟢 Saragarhi Day is observed on 12 September, commemorating the Battle of Saragarhi fought on 12 September 1897.

📍 About the Battle
🟢 Fought at Saragarhi post in the then North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of British India, now Pakistan.
🟢 The forts in the region were built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh and later renamed by the British.
🟢 Saragarhi served as a communication tower between Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan, helping coordinate British troop movements.

📍 Forces Involved
🟢 Defenders: 21 soldiers of the 36th Sikh Regiment, along with non-combatant Daad.
🟢 Leadership: The soldiers were led by Havildar Ishar Singh.
🟢 Attackers: More than 8,000 Afridi and Orakzai tribesmen.

📍 Course of the Battle
🟢 The 21 soldiers defended the post for nearly seven hours, despite being heavily outnumbered.
🟢 All 21 soldiers were killed while defending Saragarhi.
🟢 According to the provided source, the defenders killed around 200 attackers and injured 600.

📍 Honour & Recognition
🟢 All 21 soldiers were posthumously awarded the Indian Order of Merit, described in the source as the highest award for Indian soldiers at that time and equivalent to today’s Param Vir Chakra.

📍 Memorial & Remembrance
🟢 In 2017, the Punjab Government decided to observe 12 September as Saragarhi Day.
🟢 The British used burnt bricks from Saragarhi to construct an obelisk commemorating the martyrs.
🟢 The Khyber Scouts continue to mount a guard and salute the Saragarhi memorial near Fort Lockhart.

📌 UPSC Prelims Quick Recall
🟢 Battle: Saragarhi
🟢 Date: 12 September 1897
🟢 Location: Present-day Pakistan
🟢 Defenders: 21 soldiers, 36th Sikh Regiment
🟢 Leader: Havildar Ishar Singh
🟢 Opponents: Afridi & Orakzai tribesmen
🟢 Strategic role: Communication link between Fort Lockhart & Fort Gulistan
🟢 Award: Indian Order of Merit

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The Battle of Saragarhi represents an important episode in the military history of colonial India. Discuss its significance.
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🔆 Deep Sea Mining & India’s Critical Mineral Security

📍 Introduction
Deep sea mining refers to extraction of mineral resources from the seabed. For India, it is emerging as a potential source of critical minerals needed for clean-energy manufacturing, batteries and electronics.

📍 Economic Rationale
🟢 Critical mineral security: Nickel, cobalt, copper and manganese are essential for modern industries, while India remains significantly import-dependent.
🟢 Large resource base: India has an ISA exploration contract over 75,000 sq. km in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB), with an estimated 366–380 million tonnes of polymetallic nodules.
🟢 Technological capability: India has demonstrated an indigenous deep-sea mining crawler at depths beyond 5,000 m.
🟢 Mine-to-metal value chain: Could stimulate offshore engineering, marine robotics, shipbuilding, metallurgy and battery manufacturing.
🟢 Private-sector participation: The 2026 Industry Outreach Workshop seeks to move from government-led exploration towards private capital and engineering partnerships.

📍 Environmental Challenges
🟢 Poorly studied ecosystems: Polymetallic-nodule fields and hydrothermal-vent ecosystems remain inadequately understood.
🟢 Sediment plumes: Mining can disturb seabed sediments and affect surrounding marine ecosystems.
🟢 Biodiversity loss: Damage to deep-sea habitats may be irreversible.
🟢 Precautionary concerns: Several ISA member states have advocated a precautionary moratorium on deep-sea mining.

📍 International-Governance Challenges
🟢 ISA Exploitation Code: Commercial mining in international waters requires finalisation of the ISA Exploitation Code, which remains under negotiation.
🟢 Common Heritage of Mankind: The seabed beyond national jurisdiction is governed under UNCLOS as the common heritage of mankind.
🟢 Benefit sharing: Mining international seabed resources raises questions regarding equitable distribution of benefits among countries.
🟢 Technology & cost: Current crawler trials are proof-of-concept demonstrations rather than commercial-scale systems, making investment returns uncertain.

📍 Way Forward
🟢 Follow a precautionary, science-based approach with robust environmental baselines.
🟢 Finalise the ISA regulatory framework before commercial exploitation.
🟢 Strengthen indigenous technology while ensuring environmental safeguards.
🟢 Develop bankable projects only after assessing ecological, technological and economic viability.

📍 Conclusion
Deep-sea mining can diversify India’s critical-mineral supply chain, but resource security must not come at the cost of deep-ocean ecosystems and equitable global-commons governance. India should therefore pursue technology development alongside strong environmental and international safeguards.

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🔆 Regional Kingdom of Bengal — Short Notes

📍 Rise of EIC
🟢 Bengal was rich in textiles, silk, handicrafts, rice and saltpetre; major European settlements included Calcutta (British), Chinsura (Dutch) and Chandernagar (French).
🟢 Strong administration, taxation, banking, credit and inland waterways made Bengal highly attractive.
🟢 Farman of 1717: EIC got duty exemption on merchandise against ₹3,000 annual payment; Dastaks allowed duty-free passage.
🟢 Misuse of Dastaks and private trade by Company servants weakened the Nawab’s revenue and Indian traders.

📍 Conflict with Nawabs
🟢 EIC fortified Fort William without permission and misused trade privileges.
🟢 Siraj-ud-Daulah opposed these practices and attacked Calcutta in 1756.
🟢 Robert Clive recaptured Calcutta and entered secret negotiations with Mir Jafar, bankers and other nobles.

📍 Battle of Plassey — 1757
🟢 Fought between Siraj-ud-Daulah and EIC under Robert Clive.
🟢 Withdrawal of Mir Jafar’s forces weakened Siraj’s army; EIC won.
🟢 Siraj was killed and Mir Jafar became Nawab.
🟢 Mir Jafar paid heavy indemnity and ceded territory around Calcutta.

📍 Mir Kasim & Battle of Buxar
🟢 1760: Mir Jafar replaced by Mir Kasim, who ceded Burdwan, Midnapur and Chittagong.
🟢 Conflict over Dastaks/transit duties led to war in 1763.
🟢 Battle of Buxar (1764): EIC under Hector Munro defeated Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-Daula and Shah Alam II.

📍 Treaty of Allahabad — 1765
🟢 EIC obtained Diwani rights over Bengal-Bihar-Odisha.
🟢 Shah Alam II received an annual tribute of ₹26 lakh.
🟢 Shuja-ud-Daula retained Awadh and paid ₹50 lakh war indemnity.
🟢 Marked the beginning of Dual Government in Bengal.

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