Confounding Variables:
These are Variables that cannot be controlled. Although they are not interest to the researcher, but may get in the way of link between Independent and Dependent Variables.
While Variables and constructs doing a study, if we are not careful, then 2 variables can be combined, so that the effect of one cannot be seperated from the effect of the other. This is known as Confounding.
These are Variables that cannot be controlled. Although they are not interest to the researcher, but may get in the way of link between Independent and Dependent Variables.
While Variables and constructs doing a study, if we are not careful, then 2 variables can be combined, so that the effect of one cannot be seperated from the effect of the other. This is known as Confounding.
Extraneous Variables:
These are undesirable Variables that influence the relationship between the Variables that an Experimenter is examining.
These are 3 major types:
Organismic, Situational and Sequential.
Example: Relationship between Smoking and Coronary Heart disease.
Where as extent of smoking is independent variable and Coronary heart disease is dependent variable. All the Variables that might affect this relationship , either positively or negatively are Extraneous Variables.
These are undesirable Variables that influence the relationship between the Variables that an Experimenter is examining.
These are 3 major types:
Organismic, Situational and Sequential.
Example: Relationship between Smoking and Coronary Heart disease.
Where as extent of smoking is independent variable and Coronary heart disease is dependent variable. All the Variables that might affect this relationship , either positively or negatively are Extraneous Variables.
Quantitative variables:
The variables that are vary in amount are known as Quantitative variables.
E.g: Speed of response, intensity of sound, level of illumination, intelligence, etc
The variables that are vary in amount are known as Quantitative variables.
E.g: Speed of response, intensity of sound, level of illumination, intelligence, etc
Categorical variables:
The variables which are vary in kind are known as Categorical variables.
E.g: Gender, Race, Religion, etc.
These are of 3 types:
Constant, Dichotomous and Polytomous
The variables which are vary in kind are known as Categorical variables.
E.g: Gender, Race, Religion, etc.
These are of 3 types:
Constant, Dichotomous and Polytomous
S-O-R model to explain all Behavior:
S - stands for A Stimulus variable is some form of energy in the environment, such as light, to which the organism is sensitive.
O - symbol for Organism variables that is changeable physiological and psychological characteristics of the organisms being observed.
E.g: Anxiety level, age, heart beat, etc..
R - symbol for Response Variables which refer to some behavior or action of the organism like reaction to any Stimulus such as jumping, etc.
S - stands for A Stimulus variable is some form of energy in the environment, such as light, to which the organism is sensitive.
O - symbol for Organism variables that is changeable physiological and psychological characteristics of the organisms being observed.
E.g: Anxiety level, age, heart beat, etc..
R - symbol for Response Variables which refer to some behavior or action of the organism like reaction to any Stimulus such as jumping, etc.
CONSTRUCTS are building blocks of theories, helping to explain how and why certain phenomena behave the way that they do.
Constructs are mental abstractions that we used to express the ideas, people, organizations, events / objects / things that we are interested in.
Constructs are a way of bringing theory down to earth, helping to explain the different components of theories, as well as measure or observe their behavior.
Constructs are created and used for a wide variety of reasons, but generally have 2 common characteristics:
A) The construct is a part of theoretical framework and in related in various ways to other constructs.
B) A construct usually operationally defined so as to follow it's observation and measurement.
Types of Construct:
1) Intervening Variables
2) Hypothetical constructs
Constructs are mental abstractions that we used to express the ideas, people, organizations, events / objects / things that we are interested in.
Constructs are a way of bringing theory down to earth, helping to explain the different components of theories, as well as measure or observe their behavior.
Constructs are created and used for a wide variety of reasons, but generally have 2 common characteristics:
A) The construct is a part of theoretical framework and in related in various ways to other constructs.
B) A construct usually operationally defined so as to follow it's observation and measurement.
Types of Construct:
1) Intervening Variables
2) Hypothetical constructs
Intervening Variables:
An Intervening variable (Reaction Potential) is construct, which is utilized as a summary term for (combination of) a group of other constructs (habits, strength and drive). - Hilgard & Bower, 1966.
Clark Hull utilized Intervening variables in the formation of the learning theory.
Example: Hostility is inferred from hostile and aggressive acts.
An Intervening variable (Reaction Potential) is construct, which is utilized as a summary term for (combination of) a group of other constructs (habits, strength and drive). - Hilgard & Bower, 1966.
Clark Hull utilized Intervening variables in the formation of the learning theory.
Example: Hostility is inferred from hostile and aggressive acts.
Hypothetical constructs:
A Hypothetical construct can be defined as an abstract concept used in a particular theoretical manner to relate different behaviours according to their underlying features or causes.
Examples: Reflex or Knee jerk, Habit strength, etc.
As a further example, suppose an equation could be developed which would tell us how much a person knows:
K = AC * IQ
Where as
K = Knowledge test (no. Of Correct solutions a person achieved)
AC = Amount of Conditioning (no. Of Reinforced trials a person received)
IQ = person's score on a Standard Intelligence test.
Here, AC and IQ are Hypothetical constructs, while K is an Intervening variable.
A Hypothetical construct can be defined as an abstract concept used in a particular theoretical manner to relate different behaviours according to their underlying features or causes.
Examples: Reflex or Knee jerk, Habit strength, etc.
As a further example, suppose an equation could be developed which would tell us how much a person knows:
K = AC * IQ
Where as
K = Knowledge test (no. Of Correct solutions a person achieved)
AC = Amount of Conditioning (no. Of Reinforced trials a person received)
IQ = person's score on a Standard Intelligence test.
Here, AC and IQ are Hypothetical constructs, while K is an Intervening variable.
Meaning of "CONCEPT" in Research Methods:
Concept represents objectives of activities, ideas or living organism.. it also represents properties, abstraction and relation between the features.
A Concept may be defined as any describable regularity of real or imagined events or objects.
It is an abstraction formed from observation of certain behaviours.
Examples:- Achievement, Intelligence, Aggressiveness, Conformity, Honesty, etc all are concepts to express varities of human behavior.
Concept represents objectives of activities, ideas or living organism.. it also represents properties, abstraction and relation between the features.
A Concept may be defined as any describable regularity of real or imagined events or objects.
It is an abstraction formed from observation of certain behaviours.
Examples:- Achievement, Intelligence, Aggressiveness, Conformity, Honesty, etc all are concepts to express varities of human behavior.
Hypothesis in Research Methods:
A Hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or a guess or assumption or proposition or postulate or a statement (to the Problem) of the Outcome of an investigation by the Researcher.
It is an informed / educated guess. It indicates the expectations of the Researcher regarding certain Variables.
According to:
Goode and Hatt - It is a proposition which can be put to test to determine validity.
Rummel and Ballaine - A Hypothesis is a question put in such a way that an answer of some kind can be forthcoming.
Mcguigan (1990) - Hypothesis is a testable statement of a potential relationship between 2 or more Variables i.e advance as potential solution to the Problem.
Kerlinger (1973) - A Hypothesis is a Conjectural statement of the relationship between 2 or more Variables.
A Hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or a guess or assumption or proposition or postulate or a statement (to the Problem) of the Outcome of an investigation by the Researcher.
It is an informed / educated guess. It indicates the expectations of the Researcher regarding certain Variables.
According to:
Goode and Hatt - It is a proposition which can be put to test to determine validity.
Rummel and Ballaine - A Hypothesis is a question put in such a way that an answer of some kind can be forthcoming.
Mcguigan (1990) - Hypothesis is a testable statement of a potential relationship between 2 or more Variables i.e advance as potential solution to the Problem.
Kerlinger (1973) - A Hypothesis is a Conjectural statement of the relationship between 2 or more Variables.
Characteristics of Good Hypothesis:
1) is in Agreement with the observed facts.
2) does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true.
3) is stated in simplest possible terms.
4) permits of the application of deductive reasoning.
5) shows very clear verbalization.
6) ensures that the methods of verification are under the control of the investigator.
7) guarantees that available tools and techniques are effectively used for the purpose of verification.
8) ensures that the sample of readily approachable.
9) indicates clearly the role of different Variables involved in the study.
10) maintaince a apparent distinction with theory, law, facts, assumption and postulate.
1) is in Agreement with the observed facts.
2) does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true.
3) is stated in simplest possible terms.
4) permits of the application of deductive reasoning.
5) shows very clear verbalization.
6) ensures that the methods of verification are under the control of the investigator.
7) guarantees that available tools and techniques are effectively used for the purpose of verification.
8) ensures that the sample of readily approachable.
9) indicates clearly the role of different Variables involved in the study.
10) maintaince a apparent distinction with theory, law, facts, assumption and postulate.
Various Fundamental terms used in Sampling:
1) Population
2) Sample
3) Sample size
4) Sampling design or strategy
5) Sampling Unit
6) Sampling Frame
1) Population
2) Sample
3) Sample size
4) Sampling design or strategy
5) Sampling Unit
6) Sampling Frame
Definitions of Sampling :
According to:
Goode and Hatt (1981) - A Sample as the name implies, is a smaller representative of a large whole".
Young (1992) - A Statistical Sample is a miniature picture of cross selection of the entire group or aggregate from which sample is taken.
Blalock (1960) - it is a small piece of population obtained by a probability process that mirrors with known precision, the various patterns and sub-class of population.
According to:
Goode and Hatt (1981) - A Sample as the name implies, is a smaller representative of a large whole".
Young (1992) - A Statistical Sample is a miniature picture of cross selection of the entire group or aggregate from which sample is taken.
Blalock (1960) - it is a small piece of population obtained by a probability process that mirrors with known precision, the various patterns and sub-class of population.
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Vijayapriya C.V.
Implications of Grounded Theory:
1) One of the best theoretical approaches that can be used in the field of management, education, politics, information studies and communities, etc
2) to Analyse Consumer demands and preferences in existing market.
3) used in formulation of policies and programme evaluation research.
4) It can be more effectively help in solving the unanswered questions.
5) the approach can also be used to Analyse product positioning and advertising opportunities.
6) helps in understanding, analysing and describing human Psychology and experience.
1) One of the best theoretical approaches that can be used in the field of management, education, politics, information studies and communities, etc
2) to Analyse Consumer demands and preferences in existing market.
3) used in formulation of policies and programme evaluation research.
4) It can be more effectively help in solving the unanswered questions.
5) the approach can also be used to Analyse product positioning and advertising opportunities.
6) helps in understanding, analysing and describing human Psychology and experience.
Order and Sequence effects in Within Subjects design :
These 2 effects may influence the result of repeated testing.
According to McBurney and White (2007);
Order effects are those that results from ordinal position in which the condition appears in an experiment regardless of the specific condition;
Sequence effort depends on an interaction between the specific conditions of the experiment.
In within subject design, controlling for Order and Sequence effect is possible by randomisation, which can be used when each condition is given several times to each subject.
These 2 effects may influence the result of repeated testing.
According to McBurney and White (2007);
Order effects are those that results from ordinal position in which the condition appears in an experiment regardless of the specific condition;
Sequence effort depends on an interaction between the specific conditions of the experiment.
In within subject design, controlling for Order and Sequence effect is possible by randomisation, which can be used when each condition is given several times to each subject.
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