✅ Smartwatches from Apple, Garmin, Samsung, and Fitbit show significant errors in estimating physical activity energy expenditure (PAEE) compared to indirect calorimetry.

✅ The accuracy of these devices is significantly impacted by body fat percentage (BF%), with higher BF% leading to increased error across all tested brands.

✅ While skin tone was examined (Fitzpatrick types III-V), this study found no robust main effect on PAEE error, though this should be interpreted with caution due to sample size limitations.

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