#Markourwords-9

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Infiltration-

👉Explained by Horton by means of infiltration curve.
👉Entry of water in the ground
👉Ability of infiltration is called infiltration capacity(Fc)
👉Infiltration per unit time at any particular instant is called the Rate of infiltration(Fr)
👉Infiltration Rate decreases Exponentially with time.
👉Initialy the rate of infiltration is maximum.
👉Area under the infiltration curve upto some instance gives,
Total depth of infiltration upto that instant.
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👉Infiltration rate is minimum of
1.Intensity of rainfall.
2.Infiltration capacity.

👉Infiltration index-

It is the average loss rate such that the rate of rainfall in excess of this rate will be available as direct runoff.

👉Hyetograph-
Graph of intensity of rainfall vs time.
Area under the hyetograph gives Total depth of rainfall
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👉We can separate direct runoff and Infiltration loss by merging infiltration curve and hyetograph.

👉Area of hyetograph above infiltration curve-Direct runoff (Called Rainfall excess or Effective rainfall)
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👉Duration of storm in which we get Rainfall excess(runoff) is called -effective storm duration or period of rainfall excess. (**t**re)

👉Phi-Index
Average loss rate over period of rainfall excess

👉W-index
Average loss rate over entire storm duration.
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👉infiltration characteristics can be estimated by,

Using flooding type infiltrometer
Hydrograph Analysis
Rainfall simulator
Measurement of subsidencr of free water in a large basin or pond.

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#MARKOURWORDS-17

Soil Analysis

⭐️A hydrometer analysis is the process by which fine-grained soils, silts and clays, are graded.

⭐️Hydrometer analysis is performed if the grain sizes are too small for sieve analysis.

⭐️The basis for this test is Stoke’s Law for falling spheres in a viscous fluid in which the terminal velocity of fall depends on the grain diameter and the densities of the grain in suspension and of the fluid.

⭐️The grain diameter thus can be calculated from a knowledge of the distance and time of fall.

⭐️The hydrometer also determines the specific gravity (or density) of the suspension, and this enables the percentage of particles of a certain equivalent particle diameter to be calculated.

⭐️Wet Sieve analysis is Generally Performed For soils Finer than 75micrometer

⭐️There are Three Corrections in Wet Sieve Analysis.
1.Meniscus correction
2.Defloculating agent Correction
3.Temperature correction.

⭐️Dispersing(Defloculating) agent used-
Sodium
Hexa-meta-phosphate

⭐️Temperature Correction is Not required if Test Temperature is 27°Celcius

⭐️Nature of corrections -

👉Meniscus Correction is Always +ve
👉Defloculating Agent Correction is always -ve
👉Temperature correction may be +ve, -ve or Even zero.

👉+ve.... If, Temp>27°C
👉-ve.... If, Temp<27°C
👉Zero.. If, Temp=27°C

⚡️Sedimentation Analysis Is based Upon Stokes law

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#Markourwords-6

Number of Independent elastic constants -

😁For a generally anisotropic material there are 81 independent elastic constants.

😄With additional stress symmetry the number of independent elastic constants reduces to 54.

😄Further, with strain symmetry this number reduces to 36.

😄A hyperelastic material with stress and strain symmetry has 21 independent elastic constants.
👉The material with 21 independent elastic constants is also called as anisotropic or aelotropic material.

😄Further reduction with one plane of material symmetry gives 13 independent elastic constants.
👉These materials are known as monoclinic materials.

😄Additional orthogonal plane of symmetry reduces the number of independent elastic constants to 9. 
👌These materials are known as orthotropic materials. 
👉Further, if a material has two orthogonal planes of symmetry then it is also symmetric about third mutually perpendicular plane.

😄For a transversely isotropic material there are 5 independent elastic constants.

👉For an isotropic material there are only 2 independent elastic constants.

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#MARKOURWORDS-3

🗄Transformers-

🔍Static Device, hence no frictional loss. Due this transformer efficiency is high.

🔍Voltages can be transformed at constant frequency.

🔍Consist of Two windings of Copper wound on a common laminated steel core.

🔍Two windings have common magnetic circuit.

🔍Windings are Electrically seperate. Thus, EmF is induced Inductively.
(In case of Auto transformer there is only one winding and Hence transformer action is,
1.Inductive (magnetic)
2.conductive (Electric) both)

🔍Emf Is induced By mutual Induction.

🔍Works on AC supply only. Because Alternating Flux leads to mutual Induction and EMF is thus induced mutualy.

🔍If connected to DC supply A primary winding may draw excessive current and Get Burnt.

🔍In general Transformer cannot work on DC supply because current is not alternating and thus flux is also unalternating hence faradays law fails.

Transformer consist of various components as under,

1.Core made up of High Grade silicon steel~Windings are wound on the core.

2.Copper Windings~Are electrically sperate.

3.Transformer Tank~Assembly is placed in the tank in which oil is filled. (Oil has two purposes-cooling and Insulation)

4.Conservator~to counter the expansion and contraction of oil due to heating effects)

6.Breather~To suck in dust free air in case of contraction of oil.

7.Bucholz Relay~Alarms in case of Fault situation. Trips the main circuit breaker.

8.Terminal bushings~porcelain bushings for insulating the terminals.

9.Explosion vent~Breaks and liberate gases under excessive pressure development.


🔍On the basis of losses, Transformers are classified as,
1.Ideal transformer
2.Practical(real) Transformer

Ideal transformer has no losses.

Practical Transformer consist of following losses-
1.losses in the core.
2.Losses in the windings
3.Leakage reactance

Core losses and winding losses are Heat/power losses.
(Due to these losses transformer Heats and thus requires cooling mechanisms. In general transformers of Rating <50 KVA are Air cooled, however cooling tubes or radiators with External fans or blowers may be used for High rating transformers)

Core losses-
Core is made up of Iron/Steel hence called Iron losses.
They depend upon
1.frequency
2.Flux density
3.Volume of core

As for a transformer frequency and magnetic flux density both are constant, Iron or core losses are practically same at all loads.

Hence core losses or iron losses are Constant losses.

Types of Iron losses(Core/constant losses)
1.Hysterisis loss-Due to continiuos Magnetization and Demagnetization of Core.(To avoid this we use High Grade silicon steel with lamination of 0.35-0.5mm)
2.Eddy Current loss-Due to continiuos circulation of eddy currents (Air gaps shall be decreased to avoid eddy c/n loss-to avoid this we use laminated Construction)

Copper losses(Variable losses)
Due to ohmoc resistance of copper windings heat is generated in both the windings.

Copper loss=I²R + I²R
(In both primary and secondary)

Thus copper loss changes with square of load current.

In general copper loss is 85-90% of the Total loss in the transformer.

when there is no load connected across secondary winding we say it as transformer is on No load.
In such a case copper loss is negligibly small and the
Input power is equal to iron loss only.

🔍Thus Open circuit test Determines Iron loss while short circuit test Determines copper loss

🔍Transformer efficiency is generally maximum when
Iron loss=Copper loss

🔍If pi=Iron loss at full load the iron loss at half load (p) Is only 1/4th or 25%.


🔍Note-

A transformer may be put on load or may be kept unloaded.

When transformer is out of load then it means secondary winding is open circuited. In this case There occur only core loss.

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#markourwords-5

Quoin-
exterior angle or corner of a wall.

Jambs-
vertical sides of a finished opening for doors and windows.

Reveals-
exposed vertical surfaces left on the sides of an opening after the doors and windows has been fitted.

Corbel-
Projecting stone, used to support joists and lintels.
Chngl disnya sathi ornamental treatment oan detat...
At least 2/3rd length wall madhe pahije.
Generally internal astat.

Cornice -
projecting ornamental course near the top of wall.
Or
At junction of wall and Ceilling.
Penetrates into full width of wall.
Properly weather kel pahije(slope dila pahije)
Downside la throating keli pahije
(See figure)

Frieze-
A course of stone just below the cornice.
For improving appearance of
wall.

Blocking course-
This course is placed just above the cornice to avoid its overturning. It also improves appearance.

Coping-
Provided on exposed top of wall and is properly weathered and throated of so that water falls off the wall.

Toothing-
Bricks left projecting in alternate courses so as to facilitate bond in future. (chaal sodne)

Lacing course-
horizontal course of stone provided to strengthen a wall made up of irregular courses of small stones.

Spalls-
Chips or small pieces of stone.
Spalling of concrete aikl asel.
"Concrete under diagonal compression spall hot"
Ya warun lakshat theva ki chote chote tukde houn jata.

Stoolings-
Horizontal stones provided to receive jambs and mullions.
Formed at the ends of sills, transomes and heads.

Butress-
Sloping or stepped masonry projection from a tall wall intended to strengthen the wall against lateral thrusts of arches and/or roofs.

Thresholds-
These are the steps at entrance or the external door or verandah.

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#MARKOURWORDS-3

🗄Transformers-

🔍Static Device, hence no frictional loss. Due this transformer efficiency is high.

🔍Voltages can be transformed at constant frequency.

🔍Consist of Two windings of Copper wound on a common laminated steel core.

🔍Two windings have common magnetic circuit.

🔍Windings are Electrically seperate. Thus, EmF is induced Inductively.
(In case of Auto transformer there is only one winding and Hence transformer action is,
1.Inductive (magnetic)
2.conductive (Electric) both)

🔍Emf Is induced By mutual Induction.

🔍Works on AC supply only. Because Alternating Flux leads to mutual Induction and EMF is thus induced mutualy.

🔍If connected to DC supply A primary winding may draw excessive current and Get Burnt.

🔍In general Transformer cannot work on DC supply because current is not alternating and thus flux is also unalternating hence faradays law fails.

Transformer consist of various components as under,

1.Core made up of High Grade silicon steel~Windings are wound on the core.

2.Copper Windings~Are electrically sperate.

3.Transformer Tank~Assembly is placed in the tank in which oil is filled. (Oil has two purposes-cooling and Insulation)

4.Conservator~to counter the expansion and contraction of oil due to heating effects)

6.Breather~To suck in dust free air in case of contraction of oil.

7.Bucholz Relay~Alarms in case of Fault situation. Trips the main circuit breaker.

8.Terminal bushings~porcelain bushings for insulating the terminals.

9.Explosion vent~Breaks and liberate gases under excessive pressure development.


🔍On the basis of losses, Transformers are classified as,
1.Ideal transformer
2.Practical(real) Transformer

Ideal transformer has no losses.

Practical Transformer consist of following losses-
1.losses in the core.
2.Losses in the windings
3.Leakage reactance

Core losses and winding losses are Heat/power losses.
(Due to these losses transformer Heats and thus requires cooling mechanisms. In general transformers of Rating <50 KVA are Air cooled, however cooling tubes or radiators with External fans or blowers may be used for High rating transformers)

Core losses-
Core is made up of Iron/Steel hence called Iron losses.
They depend upon
1.frequency
2.Flux density
3.Volume of core

As for a transformer frequency and magnetic flux density both are constant, Iron or core losses are practically same at all loads.

Hence core losses or iron losses are Constant losses.

Types of Iron losses(Core/constant losses)
1.Hysterisis loss-Due to continiuos Magnetization and Demagnetization of Core.(To avoid this we use High Grade silicon steel with lamination of 0.35-0.5mm)
2.Eddy Current loss-Due to continiuos circulation of eddy currents (Air gaps shall be decreased to avoid eddy c/n loss-to avoid this we use laminated Construction)

Copper losses(Variable losses)
Due to ohmoc resistance of copper windings heat is generated in both the windings.

Copper loss=I²R + I²R
(In both primary and secondary)

Thus copper loss changes with square of load current.

In general copper loss is 85-90% of the Total loss in the transformer.

when there is no load connected across secondary winding we say it as transformer is on No load.
In such a case copper loss is negligibly small and the
Input power is equal to iron loss only.

🔍Thus Open circuit test Determines Iron loss while short circuit test Determines copper loss

🔍Transformer efficiency is generally maximum when
Iron loss=Copper loss

🔍If pi=Iron loss at full load the iron loss at half load (p) Is only 1/4th or 25%.


🔍Note-

A transformer may be put on load or may be kept unloaded.

When transformer is out of load then it means secondary winding is open circuited. In this case There occur only core loss.

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#MarkOurWords 18

Cross Drainage structures:

Cross Drainage Works Are Very Costly Structures meant For Crossing Of Road Over a River called Bridge or Crossing of Canal And Natural Stream or a Drain or Mala which may be in any Of the Following ways:

1) Cross Drainage works carrying the canal over the natural drain:
💢Aqueduct
💢Syphon aqueduct

2) Cross Drainage works carrying natural drain over the canal :
💢Super passage
💢Syphon

3) Cross Drainage works admitting the drain water into the canal
💢Level crossing
💢Inlet and outlet

Some Of the Words Related To Cross Drainage Structures
Canal Bed Level
Drain Bed Level
Canal Wings
Canal Banks
Syphon Barrel


✅(IMP Topic FOR MPSC/WRD)

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#MarkourWords-4

Electrical power is classified as
1.Apparent🧐
2.Active (true) 🙂
3.Reactive(oscillating) 😤

In general,
Power=VI
=I²R
=V²/R

Now in case of AC we have three circuit elements namely
Resistance😣
Capacitance😇
Inductance😇

😖Resistance is the actual element that utilizes power hence called as wastage🤯 component.

🙊However inductor and capacitor absorb power in the 1st half cycle and give it back in the next half cycle..

❤️Thus power absorbed by inductor and capacitor is zero.

Total power in AC=
Active power+ Reactive power.

Thus,

Apparent power= True + reactive.

Power factor -

In general only some of the apparent power is actually utilized.
This power is called as Active power.

Thus,
True power=________×Apparemt power

The amount or the factor by which apparent power is utilized is called powerfactor 😎

🤩The effectiveness of utilizing the apparent power is called power factor.

Thus

True P= VI COS¢
Reactive P= VI Sin¢

Where
¢ is the phase difference.

For DC voltage and current are in phase.
Thus ¢=0
Hence pf=COS 0=1

Pf for DC is unity🤘

But, in AC there are other circuit elements.

Inductance -

🤜It lags the current to voltage by 90 deg(phase quadrature)
🤜Thus opposes change in current
👍Passes DC flow
As ¢=90deg....for Pure inductance
PF=zero for pure inductance


Capacitance-


🤜It leads the current to voltage by 90 deg(phase quadrature)
🤜Thus opposes change in voltage
🙀Blocks DC flow ⚔
⚔Acts as an insulator against DC
As ¢=90deg....for Pure capacitance
PF=zero for pure capacitance.


Actual🐒 circuits are however always made of
Resistance + capacitance
Or
Resistance + Inductance.

In case of R-L circuit powerfactor is lagging 🚶‍♂

In case of R-C circuit powerfactor is leading.🏃‍♂

🔨For powerfactor correction use an inductive coil.

🔧For power factor improvement use a capacitive coil.


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#MARKOURWORDS-5

IS 1343 :2012 code of practice for Prestressed Concrete

For concrete grade greater than M60😿, design parameters given in the standard may not be applicable and the values may be obtained from specialized literatures and experimental results.

Min. Grade required for
Pre - tensioned prestressed concrete is M40👈
While that for,
Post - tensioned prestressed concrete is M30👈

Credit to some one unknown!!!!!

#markourwords-5

Quoin-
exterior angle or corner of a wall.

Jambs-
vertical sides of a finished opening for doors and windows.

Reveals-
exposed vertical surfaces left on the sides of an opening after the doors and windows has been fitted.

Corbel-
Projecting stone, used to support joists and lintels.
Chngl disnya sathi ornamental treatment oan detat...
At least 2/3rd length wall madhe pahije.
Generally internal astat.

Cornice -
projecting ornamental course near the top of wall.
Or
At junction of wall and Ceilling.
Penetrates into full width of wall.
Properly weather kel pahije(slope dila pahije)
Downside la throating keli pahije
(See figure)

Frieze-
A course of stone just below the cornice.
For improving appearance of
wall.

Blocking course-
This course is placed just above the cornice to avoid its overturning. It also improves appearance.

Coping-
Provided on exposed top of wall and is properly weathered and throated of so that water falls off the wall.

Toothing-
Bricks left projecting in alternate courses so as to facilitate bond in future. (chaal sodne)

Lacing course-
horizontal course of stone provided to strengthen a wall made up of irregular courses of small stones.

Spalls-
Chips or small pieces of stone.
Spalling of concrete aikl asel.
"Concrete under diagonal compression spall hot"
Ya warun lakshat theva ki chote chote tukde houn jata.

Stoolings-
Horizontal stones provided to receive jambs and mullions.
Formed at the ends of sills, transomes and heads.

Butress-
Sloping or stepped masonry projection from a tall wall intended to strengthen the wall against lateral thrusts of arches and/or roofs.

Thresholds-
These are the steps at entrance or the external door or verandah.

Join us @MACEDHULE.


#Markourwords-6

Number of Independent elastic constants -

😁For a generally anisotropic material there are 81 independent elastic constants.

😄With additional stress symmetry the number of independent elastic constants reduces to 54.

😄Further, with strain symmetry this number reduces to 36.

😄A hyperelastic material with stress and strain symmetry has 21 independent elastic constants.
👉The material with 21 independent elastic constants is also called as anisotropic or aelotropic material.

😄Further reduction with one plane of material symmetry gives 13 independent elastic constants.
👉These materials are known as monoclinic materials.

😄Additional orthogonal plane of symmetry reduces the number of independent elastic constants to 9. 
👌These materials are known as orthotropic materials. 
👉Further, if a material has two orthogonal planes of symmetry then it is also symmetric about third mutually perpendicular plane.

😄For a transversely isotropic material there are 5 independent elastic constants.

👉For an isotropic material there are only 2 independent elastic constants.

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#Markourwords-7
Geological Classification of Soil:
On geological basis, soils can be classified into two groups:
(i) Residual soils
(ii) Transported soils.
👉Residual Soils:
Soils which remain at the place of their formation are called residual soils.
The thickness of residual soils depends upon the climate, time and type of source rock.
These soils are found directly over the parent rock.
Igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks are the parent material for residual soil.

👉Transported Soils:
These are soils which are carried away from their place of formation to some other place by the transporting agencies.
Transporting agencies may be glaciers, water, wind or gravity.
👉Glacier Transported Soils:
Glacier transported soils include materials transported and redeposit by glacier or by ice waters flowing from the glaciers.
These types of deposits are differentiated by using the following terminology:
(a) Moraine:
Moraine is glacial material deposited by ice and not by melt waters.
(b) Drift:
Drift is the materials transported by glaciers and deposited from the melt water. Drift has stratified arrangement.
(c) Till:
These are un-stratified, heterogeneous mixtures of clay or silt directly deposited by ice.
(d) Glaciofluvial deposits:
Glaciofluvial deposits are materials transported by glaciers and deposited by melt water with stratification.
These consist of alternating thin layers of medium grey silts and darken silty clay.
👉Water Transported Soils:
The materials transported and redeposit by action of water is known as “alluvium”.
Streams are formed in a valley due to heavy rainfall.
The flowing water of streams carries with it various soils particles either in suspension or rolling them along the bottom.
Due to rolling abrasion of soil particles takes place and thus reduces the size of the particles.
The size of the particles which can be transported by soil depends upon the velocity of water.
The finer particles are carried further to more sluggish portion of stream when it gets deposited.
Soils carried by water are classified as:
(i) Alluvial soil
(ii) Lacustrine soil
(iii) Marine soil.
👉Alluvial Soil:
The soil transported from its place of disintegration by the flowing water is called Alluvial soil.
Alluvial soils often contain alternating horizontal layers of different soils types.
👉Lacustrine soils:
The soil transported by flowing water and deposited in lakes is called lacustrine soil.
Most lacustrine soils are primarily silt and clay.
Their suitability for foundation ranges from poor to average.
👉Marine soils:
The soil transported by flowing water and deposited in ocean is known as marine soil.
Marine soils are primarily silts and clays and are very soft.
👉Wind Transported Soils (Aeolian Soils):
Soils transported and deposited by wind are called Aeolian soils. This mode of transport generally produces very poorly graded soils because of the strong sorting power of wind. These soils are usually very loose and have fair engineering properties.
Aeolian soils are of two types:
👉Loess:
Loess is deep deposits of silts made by wind.
Such deposits are often found downwind of deserts.
These deposits have a very high porosity.
Loess is fairly strong when dry, but become weak when wetted.
👉Sand dunes:
The low irregular hills formed by accumulations of sand along some beaches and in some desert areas are called sand dunes.
Sand dunes are likely to be formed where the wind blows consistently from one direction only.
👉Gravity Deposited Soils:
Gravity deposited soils are loose soil or rock fragments transported down- slope under the action of gravity and deposited on or near sloping ground.
These soils are also known as colluvial soils.
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#MARKOURWORDS-8

Isotach: line on a map or chart connecting points of equal wind speed.


Isohyte: line on a map or chart connecting points equal rainfall.

Isoniff:line on a map or chart connecting points equal Snowfall.

Isoneph: line on a map connecting points that have the same average percentage of cloudiness.


Isobath: an imaginary line or a line on a map or chart that connects all points having the same depth below a water surface.


Isotherm: line connecting points of equal temperature.


Isochrone: line drawn on a map connecting points at which something occurs or arrives at the same time.

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🌟Map lines:-

1)Agonic line:- The line joining the places of zero declination

2)Aclinic line:- The line joining the places of zero dip

3)Isogonic line:- The line joining the places of same declination.

4) Isohypes:- The line joining the points of equal elevation or height.

5) Isobath:- The line joining the points of equal depth of sea water.

6) Isobar:- The line joining the points of equal atmospheric pressure.

7) Isohaline:- The line joining the ocean regions of equal salinity.

8) Isohel:- The line joining the points of equal period of insolation.

9) Isohytes:- The line joining the points of equal precipitation.

10) Isonif:- The line joining the points of equal snow

11) Isocline:- The line of equal magnetic dip.

12) Isophyte:- The line joining the points of equal height vegetations.

13) Isochrone:- The line joining the points of equal time of flow

14) Isotach:- The line in the weather maps, showing the points of equal wind velocity.

15) Isorymes:- Lines of equal frost.

#Markourwords-9


Infiltration-

👉Explained by Horton by means of infiltration curve.
👉Entry of water in the ground
👉Ability of infiltration is called infiltration capacity(Fc)
👉Infiltration per unit time at any particular instant is called the Rate of infiltration(Fr)
👉Infiltration Rate decreases Exponentially with time.
👉Initialy the rate of infiltration is maximum.
👉Area under the infiltration curve upto some instance gives,
Total depth of infiltration upto that instant.


👉Infiltration rate is minimum of
1.Intensity of rainfall.
2.Infiltration capacity.

👉Infiltration index-

It is the average loss rate such that the rate of rainfall in excess of this rate will be available as direct runoff.

👉Hyetograph-
Graph of intensity of rainfall vs time.
Area under the hyetograph gives Total depth of rainfall


👉We can separate direct runoff and Infiltration loss by merging infiltration curve and hyetograph.

👉Area of hyetograph above infiltration curve-Direct runoff (Called Rainfall excess or Effective rainfall)


👉Duration of storm in which we get Rainfall excess(runoff) is called -effective storm duration or period of rainfall excess. ( tre )

👉Any Hyetograph Drawn for runoff only is called
effective rainfall hetograph(Supra Rainfall hyetograph)


👉Phi-Index
Average loss rate over period of rainfall excess

👉W-index
Average loss rate over entire storm duration.


👉infiltration characteristics can be estimated by,

Using flooding type infiltrometer
Hydrograph Analysis
Rainfall simulator
Measurement of subsidencr of free water in a large basin or pond.

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#Markourwords10


Maximum void ratio is 0.91(IES)
Minimum void ratio is 0.35(IES)

#void ratio & watercontent has no upper limit.

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#porosity can lie within 0 to 100% but not zero and not 100%

#degree of saturation can be zero(dry soil), can be 100%(fully saturated soil, or take intermediate value(moist or partialy saturated soil)

Density index lies between 0-1

Water content can be found out most accurately by oven drying method, and in-situ by Radiation method.

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If specific gravity is know then it can be found out by pycnometer also.

Core cutter method and sand replacement method are useful in finding in-situ unit weights of soil {Moist unit weight or bulk unit weight}

Specific gravity can be found out by pycnometer and indirectly by shrinkage limit.
(NOTE-Degree of saturation at shrinkage limit is 1)

For organic soils specific gravity ranges in 1.2-1.4
And for inorganic soils it is,
2.65-2.80{ex. Sand}

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Sedimentation analysis consist of pipette analysis and hydrometer method

There are "3" corrections in hydrometer method.
Meniscus correction(+ve)
Deflocculating agent correction(-ve)
Temp. Correction.
+ve........ T>27°C
-ve..........T<27°C


Well graded soils have a greater compaction property .

Poorly garaded or uniformly graded consist of same grain size hence voids are there.

A special case of poorly graded soil is the one in which particles are either in excess or deficient called as gap graded soils! (Also called skip graded)

If D10=150 micron, it means 10% particles are finer than 150 micron. . .
Note that D10 is called effective particle size.


D50-Average size

D100- denotes the size of largest particle in the soil.

For well graded soils 1<Cc<3

For well graded gravels Cu>4
For Well Graded sands Cu>6
For poorly graded soils Cu=1

#Trick?????
G for gavaskar, S for sachin
Gavaskar four(चौका) Marto 😅
Sachin six marto😜

In casagrandes test to find liquid limit water content is found out corresponding to 25 no. Of blows

Plasticity index of sands is zero.

Toughness index is (plasticity index/flow index). . .. (#MMRDA 2015)

Sensitivity is always greater than unity and is directly proportional to thixotrophy.

Soil activity was explained by skempton.

Soil activity denotes swelling potential of soil.

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Out of various unit weights of soils, unit weight of solids is maximum while submerged unit weight is minimum
( #Generaly submerged unit weight is only 50% of saturated weight--------- this point is related to bearing capacity---when water table rises to ground surface unit weight of water falls to 50% hence bearing capacity under submergence condition is reduced by 50%)

Plasticity and activity of montmorilonite is maximum.

Bentoninte is purest form of clay which consist of 98% clay.

Bentonite is also called drilling mud which is used as a lubricant.

As compared to normal soils expansive soils have
1. More liquid limit
2. Less plastic limit
3.less shrinkage limit
4.more volumetric shrinkage
5. More plasticity index( from pt. 1 & pt 2)

Clay is finer than 0.002 mm and is flacky in shape(#TRANSCO dec 2016)

Silt is finer than 0.075 mm and coarser than 0.002 mm

Boulders are greater than 300mm
Gravel size is greater than 4.75mm and smaller than 80mm

As per IS 1498:1970😍
coarse grained soils are classified into 8 groups while fine grained soils are classified into 10 groups
Thus there are total 18 groups

Eg.
GS would be sandy gravel
Gp - poorly graded gravel
GW- well graded gravel etc


#Markourwords 11
strength of Materials. . .

🤕Stress is internal resistance while Pressure is on account of external loading.

👍Bodies develop stress
Fluid exherts pressure

😺Modulus of elasticity shows resistance to deformation

👽Slope of stress strain curve found out at origin is called modulus of elasticity

💀Stress is directly proportional to strain within proportional limit.
This is called Hookes law.

☠Analysis based upon Hookes lay is called linear analysis and the design method is called Working stress method.

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Modulus of elasticity & poissons ratio, both are same in tension and compression.
👻Hence for all grades of steel modulus of elasticity is same.

😮As per IS 456:2000 modulus of elasticity is 200 KN/mm²

🙄Stress, strain and moment pf intertia are all tensor quantities.
(Scalars are magnitude dependent, vectors are magnitude and direction dependent, Tensors are defined by axes and planes)


😮There are 9 stress components in a 3d stress system
3 normal stress components
6 shear stress components

😲However as per law of complimentary shear, there are only 3 shear components.
(Law of complimentary shear states that shear components at right angles are same in magnitude)

😕Stress calculated on the basis of original area is called engineering stress/nominal stress.

🥺Stress calculated on the basis of instantaneous area(area at any time of loading) is called true stress/actual stress.

😎In tension true stress is greater than engg. Stress.
In compression true stress is less than engg. Stress.

😊ductile materials are characterised by large post elastic strain (plastic strain)
😉Hence wires can be drawn from ductiles materials only.

😃Total strain energy stored in a material upto elastic limit is simply elastic strain energy which is recoverable.
Total elastic strain energy is called resilience.
Spring is a resilient material.

😃To compare diff. Materials we consider unit volume of material.
resillience corresponding to unit volume is called modulus of resilience.

😇Total strain energy upto breaking of material denotes "Toughness"
Toughness=Elastic SE + Plastic SE

😎Toughness of unit volume of material is called modulus of toughness.

😋Ductile materials have large post elastic strain hence they have large modulus of toughness.
😉Ductile materials are tough
While brittle materials are hard.

😭Hardness is resistance to scratch, abrasion &penetration


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#Markourwords12-

Black cotton soil-

👉also known as Regur or Maan

👉variable thickness which is underlain by a sticky material called shadu or khalaga.

👉Type of Residual soil.
👉 Volcanic origin.

👉highly expansive, sticky and plastic clays showing high swelling and shrinkage.

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👉Montmorillonite is the predominant present in BC soil.

👉pH value- 8.9(Alkaline)

👉Sp. Gr- 2.6-2.75

👉Activity- 0.8-1.5

👉Compression index- 0.2-0.5

👉CBR(Soaked) - 1.2-4

👉Shear parameters-
Cu=10-80Kn/m²
¢=5°-15°

👉Black color due to
1.Humus
2.Titanium Oxide.

👉Expansiveness can be found out by using
1.Russian method
2.Free swell test
3.Differential Free swell Test(IS 2911 part3)
4.Swelling pressure test


👉Minimum depth of foundation-
2 to 3 m

👉Suitable foundation-
1.Short Bored Piles
2.Under-reamed piles

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#Markourwords13-

In solid mechanics, it is common to analyze the properties of beams with constant cross section. 

Saint-Venant's theorem states that the simply connected cross section with maximal torsional rigidity is a circle. 

It is named after the French mathematician 
Adhémar Jean Claude Barré de Saint-Venant

#Markourwords14

Riparian zones-

A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream.

These are the zones in the imidiate vicinity or Streams or Rivers.

These zones contain vegetation.

Riparian Vegetation has a large impact on ecology and water quality characteristics.

Riparian zones dissipate stream energy.

The meandering curves of a river, combined with vegetation and root systems, slow the flow of water, which reduces soil erosion and flood damage.

The riparian zone acts as a sacrificial erosion buffer to absorb impacts of factors including climate change, increased runoff from urbanization and increased boat wake without damaging structures located behind a setback zone.

Sediment is trapped, reducing suspended solids to create less turbid water, replenish soils, and build stream banks.

Pollutants are filtered from surface runoff, enhancing water quality via biofiltration.

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#Markourwords15-



🌟Lacey's Theory:-
Applicable to Irrigation channels and rivers.
Applicable If sediment Concentration is Less than 500 PPM
Bed form is Dune Type.
It is a Regime theory.
Indian Standard recommends Laceys theory.
Use Mannings formula as a Resistance equation.
3 basic equations are proposed

🌟Kennedy's Theory:-
Applicable to Irrigation channels only.
Disadvantageous theory
No equation given for slope.
No importance assigned to the B/D ratio.
Uses kutters formula as A resistance equation.
Garrets Diagram are based upon kennedys theory.
Woods tables may be used.

✨Tractive force approach:-
Based upon Boundary shear concept.
Critical Tractive stress can be calculated by using shields expression or whites expression.

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#MARKOURWORDS 16

💥Flexibility matrix method cannot be used for unstable structures.

💡Stiffness method can be used for both determinate and indeterminate structures.

☀️Maxwell reciprocal theorem is special case of Betti's law.

🌟slope deflection method was given by GA Maney

⭐️Moment Distribution method was Given By Prof. Hardy Cross.

⭐️Strain Energy Method is also called As principle of Real Work.

⭐️Strain energy Is the Resillience of the body.

⚡️Resilience is the Recoverable strain energy.

#Markourwords-6

Number of Independent elastic constants -

😁 For a generally anisotropic material there are 81 independent elastic constants.

😄 With additional stress symmetry the number of independent elastic constants reduces to 54.

😄 Further, with strain symmetry this number reduces to 36.

😄 A hyperelastic material with stress and strain symmetry has 21 independent elastic constants.
👉 The material with 21 independent elastic constants is also called as anisotropic or aelotropic material.

😄 Further reduction with one plane of material symmetry gives 13 independent elastic constants.
👉 These materials are known as monoclinic materials.

😄 Additional orthogonal plane of symmetry reduces the number of independent elastic constants to 9. 
👌 These materials are known as orthotropic materials. 
👉 Further, if a material has two orthogonal planes of symmetry then it is also symmetric about third mutually perpendicular plane.

😄 For a transversely isotropic material there are 5 independent elastic constants.

👉 For an isotropic material there are only 2 independent elastic constants.

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