🔆 COLONIAL KNOWLEDGE

🔆 WHAT IS COLONIAL KNOWLEDGE?
🟢 European colonial domination depended not only on military strength, political power and economic wealth but also on “cultural technologies of rule” — a concept associated with Nicholas Dirks.
🟢 Knowledge of Indian laws, customs, languages, literature and geography helped the British understand and administer the colonised territory.

🔆 WARREN HASTINGS: MOTIVATIONS
🟢 Wanted to end Robert Clive’s Dual Government system and establish territorial rule over Bengal.
🟢 Opposed simply imposing English laws and customs; favoured ruling Indians according to their own traditions.
🟢 Sought to understand Indian manners, customs, laws and literature to make British rule more acceptable and reduce resistance.

🔆 ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL
🟢 Established: 1784 by William Jones, a judge of the Supreme Court at Calcutta.
🟢 Objective: Organised study of Asia to make Indian and Asian knowledge more intelligible to Europeans.
🟢 Journal: Asiatick Researches.

📍 Key Orientalist Scholars
🟢 William Jones: Mastered Sanskrit; authored A Digest of Hindu Law on Contract and Succession.
🟢 Charles Wilkins: Translated the Bhagavad Gita.
🟢 Henry Thomas Colebrooke: Succeeded Jones as a leading Orientalist scholar; became Professor of Sanskrit at Fort William in 1800. Studied the Vedas, placed them chronologically before the Puranas and discussed monotheistic traditions in ancient India.

🔆 COMPILATION OF HINDU LAW BOOKS
🟢 Warren Hastings’s judicial reforms revealed differing interpretations of local laws by Brahman Pandits following different schools of the Dharmashastras.
🟢 11 Pandits compiled a digest of Hindu laws to promote uniformity.
🟢 N.B. Halhed translated it into English as A Code of Gentoo Laws.
🟢 A Code of Gentoo Laws and A Digest of Hindu Law on Contract and Succession became authoritative texts used in colonial administration.
🟢 The Company government financed their compilation and publication.

🔆 SURVEYOR GENERAL OF BENGAL
🟢 The office was established under Warren Hastings.
🟢 James Rennell was appointed the first Surveyor General of Bengal in 1764.
🟢 Rennell published Map of Hindoostan, an authoritative mapping exercise on India.
🟢 British Army sepoys and officials participated in surveying and mapping.

🔆 FORT WILLIAM COLLEGE & ADMINISTRATORS-CUM-SCHOLARS
🟢 Fort William College contributed to the emergence of administrators who combined scholarship with colonial administration.
🟢 Their knowledge of Indian society, languages and traditions influenced administrative practices and contributed to changes in Indian society.

🔆 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE
🟢 Colonial knowledge helped the British classify, document and administer Indian society.
🟢 Orientalist scholarship preserved and translated Indian texts but also made local knowledge a tool of colonial governance.
🟢 Key theme: Knowledge was both a scholarly pursuit and an instrument of colonial power.

🔆 UPSC MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION
📍 “Colonial rule in India was established not merely through military power but also through the systematic production of knowledge about Indian society.” Examine.

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🔆 ONE-LINERS | 14 OCTOBER 2026

🔆 GEOGRAPHY
📍 Record Sea Surface Temperature in Niño 3.4
🟢 Sea surface temperatures in the Niño 3.4 region reached a record 29.70°C in September 2026, according to the EU’s Copernicus Climate Change Service.
🟢 The record exceeded peak temperatures associated with the strong 1982–83, 1997–98 and 2015–16 El Niño events.
🟢 September 2026 was 1.63°C above the 1850–1900 pre-industrial average.
🟢 Highlights the role of Pacific Ocean warming in global temperature extremes.

🔆 SOCIAL ISSUES
📍 Lakshadweep Declared 100% Literate
🟢 Declared a fully literate Union Territory on 11 October 2026 by Administrator Praful Patel at Kavaratti.
🟢 Achieved under ULLAS – Nav Bharat Saaksharta Karyakram, a centrally sponsored adult-education scheme.
🟢 An initial survey identified 1,113 adult non-literate residents; eligible learners cleared the Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT).
🟢 This milestone reflects literacy under the ULLAS framework; the 2011 Census literacy rate was 91.85%.

🔆 POLITY & GOVERNANCE
📍 Bharat Rice for the Indian Army
🟢 The Indian Army launched Bharat Rice on 12 October 2026 and signed a five-year MoU with the Food Corporation of India (FCI).
🟢 Rice is delivered directly to Army Supply Depots, including remote locations in Ladakh and the Northeast.
🟢 Custom-milled through NAFED, with stringent quality standards and packaging in 10-kg and 30-kg bags.
🟢 Allocation for the Army in FY 2026–27: 1.25 lakh metric tonnes.
🟢 The FCI agreement enables access to designated warehouses, labour and material-handling equipment during operational contingencies.
🟢 Objective: improve military logistics and accelerate the movement of supplies to forward areas.

🔆 ENVIRONMENT
📍 Aldabra Giant Tortoises Outnumber Seychelles’ Human Population
🟢 A survey by the Seychelles Islands Foundation (SIF) and the University of Exeter estimated 180,000–183,000 Aldabra giant tortoises on Aldabra Atoll.
🟢 Seychelles’ human population is estimated at approximately 122,000–135,000.
🟢 Research analysed field counts collected between 2018 and 2022.
🟢 Historical exploitation reduced tortoise numbers to fewer than 1,000 individuals.
🟢 Aldabra Atoll became a strict nature reserve in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982.
🟢 Key threats include climate change, rising sea levels, prolonged droughts and invasive species.

🔆 SECURITY
📍 Indian Coast Guard’s ‘Tat Se Parwat’ Expedition
🟢 A 17-member Indian Coast Guard (ICG) team summited Mount Mukut (7,045 m) on 7 October 2026.
🟢 “Tat Se Parwat” means “From Sea to Summit.”
🟢 First ICG flag expedition to a peak above 7,000 metres.
🟢 The climb was the fifth and final phase of an 18-month high-altitude training programme preparing for a proposed Mount Everest expedition in 2027.
🟢 The expedition was flagged off on 15 September 2026 by ICG Director-General Paramesh Sivamani; the team was flagged in at Dehradun on 12 October.
🟢 Mount Everest: 8,848.86 m; world’s highest mountain above sea level.
🟢 Himalayan Mountaineering Institute (HMI): established in 1954 at Darjeeling, West Bengal; provided specialised training.

🔆 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

📍 Perseverance Rover Sets Mars Driving Record
🟢 NASA’s Perseverance rover reached 45.22 km (28.10 miles) on Mars on 11 October 2026, surpassing the previous record held by Opportunity.
🟢 Opportunity rover’s previous record: 45.16 km (28.06 miles).
🟢 Perseverance achieved the milestone in approximately 5.5 years, compared with nearly 15 years for Opportunity.
🟢 Over 90% of Perseverance’s total distance was driven using its autonomous AutoNav system.
🟢 The rover’s exploration along the Jezero Crater rim has been extended through the end of 2028.

📍 Shrutlekh: Voice-First Multilingual AI
🟢 The Digital India BHASHINI Division deployed Shrutlekh at the National Centre for Good Governance (NCGG), Mussoorie, for real-time two-way English–Spanish translation.
🟢 Used during a capacity-building programme for foreign civil servants from 12–23 October 2026.
🟢 Organised by NCGG, sponsored by the Ministry of External Affairs and supported by MeitY.
🟢 BHASHINI supports 36 Indian languages in text, 23 in voice and 35 international languages.
🟢 Integrated with 2,353+ government platforms and 800+ official websites.

🔆 HEALTH
📍 WHO Hub for Pandemic and Epidemic Intelligence
🟢 Located in Berlin, Germany; established in 2021 following gaps exposed by the COVID-19 pandemic.
🟢 Its five-year strategy aims to help every country detect and understand emerging health threats within 24 hours by 2030.
🟢 Has collaborated with 160 WHO Member States and 190 partner organisations.
🟢 Five key initiatives:
🟢 EIOS: AI-assisted monitoring of open-source information for early warning.
🟢 IPSN: Strengthens pathogen sequencing and surveillance.
🟢 The Collaboratory: Connects 2,000+ data science and modelling experts.
🟢 Collaborative Surveillance Initiative: Builds surveillance systems using the One Health approach.
🟢 Digital Enablers for Public Health Intelligence: Promotes secure data sharing and responsible AI.

🔆 MISCELLANEOUS
📍 World Day Against the Death Penalty — 10 October
🟢 The 24th observance took place on 10 October 2026.
🟢 Theme: “Stories for Life.”
🟢 Focuses on human stories and a person-centred approach to abolitionist advocacy.
🟢 The 9th World Congress Against the Death Penalty was held in Paris from 30 June to 2 July 2026.
🟢 Morocco was announced as host of the 10th World Congress in 2029.

📍 World Standards Day — 14 October
🟢 2026 theme: “Shared Vision for a Better World.”
🟢 Special focus on SDG 7 — Affordable and Clean Energy.
🟢 Organised by World Standards Cooperation (WSC), comprising ISO, IEC and ITU.
🟢 Commemorates the 1946 London meeting that led to the creation of an international standardisation organisation.
🟢 In India, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) marks the occasion with programmes highlighting clean-energy standards and energy efficiency.

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🔆 THE MARATHAS: RISE & DECLINE

🔆 RISE OF THE MARATHAS
🟢 Marathi-speaking peasant clans rose to prominence in the 16th century, serving the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmednagar.
🟢 They emerged as a major regional power challenging Mughal authority.

🔆 ADMINISTRATION & REVENUE
🟢 Deshmukh: Controlled around 20–100 villages.
🟢 Patil: Village headman.
🟢 Kulkarni: Village record-keeper.
🟢 Mirasdars: Hereditary cultivators; Uparis: Temporary cultivators.
🟢 Chauth: 25% of produce.
🟢 Sardeshmukhi: Additional 10% of the Mughal government’s revenue share.

🔆 IMPORTANT PESHWAS
🟢 Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720): Secured Mughal recognition of Maratha revenue rights in the Deccan.
🟢 Baji Rao I (1720–1740): Expanded northward, raided Delhi in 1737 and strengthened Maratha influence.
🟢 Balaji Rao/Nana Saheb (1740–1761): Marathas became protectors of the Mughal throne in 1752.

🔆 MARATHA CONFEDERACY
🟢 Gaekwad — Baroda
🟢 Bhonsle — Nagpur
🟢 Holkar — Indore
🟢 Scindia — Gwalior

🔆 ANGLO-MARATHA WARS
🟢 First (1775–1782): Treaty of Salbai (1782).
🟢 Second (1803–1805): Treaty of Bassein (1802) brought Peshwa Bajirao II under British influence.
🟢 Third (1817–1819): British victories ended the Peshwa’s rule and established their supremacy over the Marathas.

🔆 MARATHA ARCHITECTURE
🟢 Wadas: Multi-storey wooden residences with courtyards and defensive features.
🟢 Forts: Hill forts were central to Maratha military strategy.
🟢 Temples: Evolved towards taller, more elaborate structures during the 18th century.

🔆 MAINS PRACTICE QUESTION
📍 Examine the factors behind the rise of Maratha power and its eventual defeat in the Anglo-Maratha Wars.

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🔆 ONE-LINERS | 15 OCTOBER 2026

🔆 GEOGRAPHY
📍 Paradip Port Sets Single-Day Coal Loading Record
🟢 Paradip Port Authority (PPA), Odisha, loaded a record 1,40,022 metric tonnes of thermal coal in 24 hours on 10 October 2026.
🟢 Cargo handled by bulk carriers M.V. APJ Indrani and M.V. Ripley Pinnacle.
🟢 Surpassed the previous record of 1,37,500 MT, set on 29 May 2022, by 2,522 MT.
🟢 Highlights improved mechanised coal handling and rail-to-ship logistics.

🔆 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
📍 Mongolia’s First Oil Refinery
🟢 Located at Altanshiree Soum, Dornogobi Province, near Sainshand, Mongolia.
🟢 Supported by Indian financial and credit assistance, including an initial USD 1 billion Line of Credit announced in 2015; total project credit support is around USD 1.7 billion.
🟢 Designed processing capacity: 1.5 million metric tonnes of crude oil annually.
🟢 Aims to produce domestic petrol, diesel, aviation fuel and LPG, reducing dependence on imported refined fuels.
🟢 Engineers India Limited (EIL) provides project management consultancy; Megha Engineering and Infrastructures Ltd. (MEIL) is among the construction companies involved.

📍 India Opens Resident Mission in Costa Rica
🟢 India operationalised its resident diplomatic mission in San José, Costa Rica, on 10 October 2026.
🟢 Previously, diplomatic relations were handled through India’s mission in Panama, alongside an honorary consular presence in San José.
🟢 Objectives: strengthen political engagement, trade, investment, pharmaceuticals, IT cooperation and consular services for Indian nationals.

📍 Oman Becomes India’s Largest LNG Supplier
🟢 Oman overtook the United States as India’s largest supplier of liquefied natural gas (LNG) in September 2026.
🟢 Supplier rankings: Oman — 585,000 tonnes; Nigeria — 351,000 tonnes; United States — approximately 340,000–350,000 tonnes.
🟢 Other suppliers: UAE — 311,000 tonnes; Angola — 205,000 tonnes; Qatar — approximately 94,000 tonnes.
🟢 India’s total LNG imports were around 2.24 million tonnes, down 12.7% month-on-month but up 7% year-on-year.
🟢 Factors included competition for US spot cargoes and shipping disruptions in West Asia.

🔆 AGRICULTURE
📍 10th National Convention of Agrivision–2026
🟢 Held on 13–14 October 2026 at ICAR–National Agricultural Science Complex, Pusa, New Delhi.
🟢 Theme: “TradiTech-led Transformation.”
🟢 Organised by Agrivision with the ICAR Agricultural Education Division.
🟢 Participation: around 450 students from 25 States.
🟢 Focus: agricultural diversification, value-chain integration, AI and robotics in farming, agri-entrepreneurship and research.
🟢 Discussions included a proposed Agriculture Council to address concerns over substandard private agricultural colleges.

📍 Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea)
🟢 A drought-tolerant grain legume native to sub-Saharan Africa, valued for its protein content and adaptability to poor soils.
🟢 Approximate composition: 63% carbohydrates, 19% protein and 6.5% fat.
🟢 Can grow with around 300–500 mm annual rainfall and fixes atmospheric nitrogen, supporting soil fertility.
🟢 New suitability maps for South Africa and Eswatini used weather data spanning 49 growing seasons.
🟢 October was identified as the most favourable month for rainfed planting.
🟢 Accounting for frost risk reduced suitable land by 28%; competing land uses reduced available land by another 20%.
🟢 Relevant to climate-resilient agriculture and food security.

🔆 ENVIRONMENT

📍 Phoenix Species Project
🟢 A USD 200 million global conservation initiative launched on 4 August 2026 by Re:wild and the Bezos Earth Fund.
🟢 Aims to recover 100 of the world’s most critically endangered species across 30 countries.
🟢 Featured species include the Sunda pangolin, Visayan warty pig, pink land iguana, pancake tortoise and Attenborough’s long-beaked echidna.
🟢 Provides funding, scientific support and long-term assistance to local communities and Indigenous-led conservation groups.

🔆 SECURITY
📍 INS Samarthak — Indigenous Multi-Purpose Vessel
🟢 India’s first indigenously built Multi-Purpose Vessel (MPV), scheduled for commissioning on 16 October 2026 at Karwar.
🟢 Built by Larsen & Toubro (L&T) at Kattupalli Shipyard near Chennai.
🟢 Features over 75% indigenous components; first of four planned vessels under an ₹887-crore contract.
🟢 Specifications: 3,750 tonnes displacement, 107 m length, maximum speed of 15 knots and range of 4,500 nautical miles.
🟢 Roles: testing indigenous weapons and sensors, maritime surveillance, offshore patrol, support for unmanned systems, disaster relief, salvage and pollution control.
🟢 Can support a HAL Dhruv helicopter and limited hospital-ship operations.
🟢 Motto: “Victory is Our Sole Aim.”

🔆 REPORTS & INDEX
📍 IMF World Economic Outlook — October 2026
🟢 The International Monetary Fund (IMF) projected global economic growth of 3.1% in 2026 and 3.4% in 2027.
🟢 Global headline inflation projected at 4.7% in 2026, easing to 4.1% in 2027.
🟢 Growth remains supported by private-sector adaptation and AI investment despite geopolitical conflict and energy pressures.
🟢 Major risks: depleted emergency energy stocks, high public debt, elevated borrowing costs and widening technological and energy-related economic divides.
🟢 Country projections for 2026: India — 7.0–7.4%; United States — 2.3%; China — 4.4%.
🟢 India remains among the fastest-growing major economies.

🔆 MISCELLANEOUS
📍 World Students’ Day — 15 October
🟢 Observed in India on the birth anniversary of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, born on 15 October 1931 in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu.
🟢 Celebrates his contributions as a scientist, educator and former President of India.
🟢 Focus: access to quality education, scientific curiosity, innovation and youth empowerment.
🟢 No formally designated official theme for 2026.
🟢 Despite its name, World Students’ Day is not an officially recognised UN observance.
🟢 Quote: “Dream, dream, dream. Dreams transform into thoughts and thoughts result in action.”

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🔆 Endangered Languages in India & Government Efforts

📍 Context
✅ India is one of the world’s most linguistically diverse countries
✅ UNESCO lists 197 endangered languages in India
✅ Languages fall into categories: vulnerable, endangered, severely endangered, or extinct

📍 Examples of Critically Endangered Languages
✅ Great Andamanese – Andaman Islands
✅ Toda – Nilgiri Hills (Tamil Nadu)
✅ Asur – Jharkhand
✅ Koro – Arunachal Pradesh

🔆 Government Initiatives for Language Preservation

📍 Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages (SPPEL)
✅ Focus: Languages spoken by fewer than 10,000 people
✅ Aim: Documentation, research, and promotion
✅ 117 languages prioritised in the first phase

📍 UGC-supported Measures
✅ Funding for academic research on indigenous languages
✅ Establishment of Centres for Endangered Languages in Central Universities
✅ Promotion of interdisciplinary linguistic studies

📍 Training & Documentation Efforts
✅ Regular training programmes for linguists and researchers
✅ Preparation of:
 • Dictionaries
 • Grammar books
 • Audio-visual recordings
✅ Focus on long-term language survival and revival

🔆 Why It Matters
✅ Language loss = loss of oral history, folklore, ecological knowledge
✅ Preserving languages strengthens cultural diversity and identity
✅ Aligns with constitutional values of pluralism and inclusiveness

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