Q1.Highlight the Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian elements in the Gandhara art. (Answer in 150 words) 10 (CSE 2019)
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Ans. Gandhara school of art was the epitome of Cultural Revolution in present day’s west Pakistan and east Afghanistan during Kushana’s rule, of which Gandhara sculpture was an important part, which depicts sculpture of Buddha.
How geographical location of Gandhara art facilitated interaction of various artistic components:
✅Geographical position of the region was at the crossroads of cultural exchange, which resulted into interaction of artistic components.
✅This area witnessed the advent of number of foreign powers and political configuration ranging from the Greek, Bactrian to Kushanas. Thus, Gandhara style was amalgam of Hellenistic-Roman, Iranian and indigenous art.
The central Asian and Greco-Bactrian elements in the Gandhara art:
▪️Greek Influence
✅It can be observed in the form of Buddha’s wavy hair, draperies covering both shoulders, footwear, Buddha shown under the protection of Greek God Herakles standing with his club and so on. In fact, the very concept of man-God is attributed to the Greeks. The Buddha’s mythological statue can also be related to Greeks.
✅Some examples of Gandhara art depict both Buddha and the Greek God Herakles from Greek Mythology.
✅Stucco plaster, which was commonly observed in Greek art, was widely used in Gandhara artwork for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings.
▪️Roman influence
✅It is evident from the sculpture of Gautama Buddha, with a youthful Apollo-like face, dressed in garments resembling the scenes of Roman imperial statues.
✅Gandhara sculpture incorporated many motifs and techniques from classical Roman art too, as seen from the vine scrolls, cherubs bearing garlands, tritons and centaurs.
✅Additionally, the Gandhara art drew from the anthropomorphic traditions of Roman religions. The realistic sculpture of Buddha is also associated with Romans.
▪️Central Asian influence
✅In Gandhara art, specific types of Buddhist cult structures were elaborately constructed.
✅Paintings, bas-reliefs and sculpture richly decorated
secular and especially cult buildings.
✅Columns, plasters (mainly derived from the Corinthian order) and other architectural elements usually had magnificent plastic arrangement.
✅Temples built in the area influenced by Gandhara art normally included central square structures with circumambulatory corridors (Haa, Swat, and Miran).
✅The idea of circumambulatory corridors was undoubtedly of Iranian origin, since fire temples with such corridors appear in Iran from the Achaemenid time.
✅Schemes for the ground plans of monasteries display many varieties. When the space was limited, ‘glued’ plans could be applied, combining two or three isolated parts with different functions: the sacred one (temple) with a large stupa in the middle; living quarters with monks’ cells and a prayer-hall, etc.
✅This architectural pattern was widespread in Central Asia both in the Kushana period (as in Fayay-tepe) and later (as in Ajina-tepa).
▪️Conclusion: The above influences can be well-justified because of strategic location of Gandhara school. Thus, in this regard it can be claimed that the art that flourished in the Gandhara valleys was a blend of different cultures.
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Ans. Gandhara school of art was the epitome of Cultural Revolution in present day’s west Pakistan and east Afghanistan during Kushana’s rule, of which Gandhara sculpture was an important part, which depicts sculpture of Buddha.
How geographical location of Gandhara art facilitated interaction of various artistic components:
✅Geographical position of the region was at the crossroads of cultural exchange, which resulted into interaction of artistic components.
✅This area witnessed the advent of number of foreign powers and political configuration ranging from the Greek, Bactrian to Kushanas. Thus, Gandhara style was amalgam of Hellenistic-Roman, Iranian and indigenous art.
The central Asian and Greco-Bactrian elements in the Gandhara art:
▪️Greek Influence
✅It can be observed in the form of Buddha’s wavy hair, draperies covering both shoulders, footwear, Buddha shown under the protection of Greek God Herakles standing with his club and so on. In fact, the very concept of man-God is attributed to the Greeks. The Buddha’s mythological statue can also be related to Greeks.
✅Some examples of Gandhara art depict both Buddha and the Greek God Herakles from Greek Mythology.
✅Stucco plaster, which was commonly observed in Greek art, was widely used in Gandhara artwork for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings.
▪️Roman influence
✅It is evident from the sculpture of Gautama Buddha, with a youthful Apollo-like face, dressed in garments resembling the scenes of Roman imperial statues.
✅Gandhara sculpture incorporated many motifs and techniques from classical Roman art too, as seen from the vine scrolls, cherubs bearing garlands, tritons and centaurs.
✅Additionally, the Gandhara art drew from the anthropomorphic traditions of Roman religions. The realistic sculpture of Buddha is also associated with Romans.
▪️Central Asian influence
✅In Gandhara art, specific types of Buddhist cult structures were elaborately constructed.
✅Paintings, bas-reliefs and sculpture richly decorated
secular and especially cult buildings.
✅Columns, plasters (mainly derived from the Corinthian order) and other architectural elements usually had magnificent plastic arrangement.
✅Temples built in the area influenced by Gandhara art normally included central square structures with circumambulatory corridors (Haa, Swat, and Miran).
✅The idea of circumambulatory corridors was undoubtedly of Iranian origin, since fire temples with such corridors appear in Iran from the Achaemenid time.
✅Schemes for the ground plans of monasteries display many varieties. When the space was limited, ‘glued’ plans could be applied, combining two or three isolated parts with different functions: the sacred one (temple) with a large stupa in the middle; living quarters with monks’ cells and a prayer-hall, etc.
✅This architectural pattern was widespread in Central Asia both in the Kushana period (as in Fayay-tepe) and later (as in Ajina-tepa).
▪️Conclusion: The above influences can be well-justified because of strategic location of Gandhara school. Thus, in this regard it can be claimed that the art that flourished in the Gandhara valleys was a blend of different cultures.
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Q2. The 1857 Uprising was the culmination of the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had occurred in the preceding hundred years of British rule. Elucidate (Answer in 150 words 10 Marks)
🔆 Answer
✅Though many people consider 1857 revolt as the first major resentment against the British rule, however, there were many incidents before 1857 revolt that indicated a building resentment against the rule of Britishers. In the last hundred years (1757-1857), many revolts occurred that eventually led to uprising of 1857 revolt, which can be divided into 4 major parts:
1. Civil revolts: These were the first group of people who revolted against Britishers to secure their traditional and customary rights. For instance, sanyasi revolts (1763-1800), revolts in Midnapore and Dhalbhum during 1766-74, revolts of Moamarias in Ahom state 1769, revolt of Raja of Vijayanagaram 1794, and civil rebellion in Awadh 1799, Kuka 1840, Surat salt agitation of 1840s were some major civilian revolts with common causes of resentment, that were illegal tax demands and oppression by police, judiciary and revenue department.
2. Tribal revolts: Tribal movements under British rule were the most frequent, militant and violent of all movements. Some of them were Chuar uprising of Midnapore, Bengal of 1770s, Kol of Chhotanagpur during 1830s led by Buddho Bhagat, Khond uprising of Orissa 1835 to 1856 led by Chakra Bisnoi, Santhal uprising led by Siddhu and Kanu just before 1857 revolt, Bhil and Ramoshi uprising in western India. The resentment of tribals against Britishers were mainly due to imposition of forest rights Act, forceful conversion of tribals by Christian missionaries, oppression by money lenders and zamindars after extension of permanent settlement in tribal areas.
3. Peasant revolts: Peasant uprisings were protests against evictions, increase in rents of land, and money lenders’ greedy ways and their demands was occupancy rights for peasants. Some major and minor peasants revolts were, for instance : pagal panthis of Bengal led by Karamshah during 1825-35, Faraizi revolt in eastern Bengal led by Hazi Shariatullah and his son Dadu Mian, Mopillah uprising in Malabar during 1834 to 1854 and Paika revolt of Khurda, Odisha led by B Jagbandhu.
The common provoking cause of resentment of these peasants were exorbitant demand of land revenue, oppression of officials and frequent occurrence of drought and famine, etc.
4. Princely states revolts: With the expansion of Britishers in India some princely states were annexed on excuse of maladministration and use of diplomacy of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse. For instance, Mysore, in 1831 by William Bantick, Jhansi in 1852, Awadh in 1856. They also revolted against Britishers.
✅Conclusion: Thus, it can be said that these rebellions, which were localised in nature, lacking of efficient leadership and influenced by backward looking ideology were suppressed by Britishers with use of force but still they established a culture of resistance among natives and eventually prepared the way for 1857 revolt.
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🔆 Answer
✅Though many people consider 1857 revolt as the first major resentment against the British rule, however, there were many incidents before 1857 revolt that indicated a building resentment against the rule of Britishers. In the last hundred years (1757-1857), many revolts occurred that eventually led to uprising of 1857 revolt, which can be divided into 4 major parts:
1. Civil revolts: These were the first group of people who revolted against Britishers to secure their traditional and customary rights. For instance, sanyasi revolts (1763-1800), revolts in Midnapore and Dhalbhum during 1766-74, revolts of Moamarias in Ahom state 1769, revolt of Raja of Vijayanagaram 1794, and civil rebellion in Awadh 1799, Kuka 1840, Surat salt agitation of 1840s were some major civilian revolts with common causes of resentment, that were illegal tax demands and oppression by police, judiciary and revenue department.
2. Tribal revolts: Tribal movements under British rule were the most frequent, militant and violent of all movements. Some of them were Chuar uprising of Midnapore, Bengal of 1770s, Kol of Chhotanagpur during 1830s led by Buddho Bhagat, Khond uprising of Orissa 1835 to 1856 led by Chakra Bisnoi, Santhal uprising led by Siddhu and Kanu just before 1857 revolt, Bhil and Ramoshi uprising in western India. The resentment of tribals against Britishers were mainly due to imposition of forest rights Act, forceful conversion of tribals by Christian missionaries, oppression by money lenders and zamindars after extension of permanent settlement in tribal areas.
3. Peasant revolts: Peasant uprisings were protests against evictions, increase in rents of land, and money lenders’ greedy ways and their demands was occupancy rights for peasants. Some major and minor peasants revolts were, for instance : pagal panthis of Bengal led by Karamshah during 1825-35, Faraizi revolt in eastern Bengal led by Hazi Shariatullah and his son Dadu Mian, Mopillah uprising in Malabar during 1834 to 1854 and Paika revolt of Khurda, Odisha led by B Jagbandhu.
The common provoking cause of resentment of these peasants were exorbitant demand of land revenue, oppression of officials and frequent occurrence of drought and famine, etc.
4. Princely states revolts: With the expansion of Britishers in India some princely states were annexed on excuse of maladministration and use of diplomacy of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse. For instance, Mysore, in 1831 by William Bantick, Jhansi in 1852, Awadh in 1856. They also revolted against Britishers.
✅Conclusion: Thus, it can be said that these rebellions, which were localised in nature, lacking of efficient leadership and influenced by backward looking ideology were suppressed by Britishers with use of force but still they established a culture of resistance among natives and eventually prepared the way for 1857 revolt.
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Q3. Examine the linkages between the nineteenth century’s ‘Indian Renaissance’ and emergence of national identity. (Answer in 150 words, 10 Marks)
✅Ans. The social and religious reforms movement, popularly termed as Indian renaissance, which preceded the political struggles, are considered a necessary precursor to origin of Indian nationality.
How renaissance facilitated the emergence of national identity :-
✅Rediscovery of India’s glorious past: The nineteenth century Indian Renaissance also created several avenues in the field of oriental studies. Western scholars like Max Muller, Sir William Jones, Alexander Cunningham, etc. translated several ancient Sanskrit texts of this land and established before the people the glorious cultural heritage of India. Inspired by them, the Indian scholars like R.D. Banerjee, R.G. Bhandarkar, Madan Mukhopadhyaya, Hari Prasad Astir, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, etc. rediscovered India’s past glory from the history of this land. This encouraged the people of India who felt that they were the ancestors of grand monarchs of this country and ruled by foreigners. This flared up the fire of nationalism.
✅ Revivalist Movements: Under these movements, Indian culture and civilisation were proclaimed superior. Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekanand, etc. were the leaders of these movements.
✅ Reformists Movements of that time, such as Brahmo Samaj (led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy), etc. condemned existing untouchability and tried to abolish the caste system. Their ideas of equality and brotherhood attracted the lower castes towards nationalism. These reforms also focussed upon emancipation of women. They opposed the practice of sati, supported re-marriage of widows and also promoted spread of education among women. All these helped women to join national movements
✅Conclusion: Apart from the progressive character of social religious reforms, role of press, English education, result and reaction of colonial policies, etc. have also played a significant role in developing national identity in India.
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✅Ans. The social and religious reforms movement, popularly termed as Indian renaissance, which preceded the political struggles, are considered a necessary precursor to origin of Indian nationality.
How renaissance facilitated the emergence of national identity :-
✅Rediscovery of India’s glorious past: The nineteenth century Indian Renaissance also created several avenues in the field of oriental studies. Western scholars like Max Muller, Sir William Jones, Alexander Cunningham, etc. translated several ancient Sanskrit texts of this land and established before the people the glorious cultural heritage of India. Inspired by them, the Indian scholars like R.D. Banerjee, R.G. Bhandarkar, Madan Mukhopadhyaya, Hari Prasad Astir, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, etc. rediscovered India’s past glory from the history of this land. This encouraged the people of India who felt that they were the ancestors of grand monarchs of this country and ruled by foreigners. This flared up the fire of nationalism.
✅ Revivalist Movements: Under these movements, Indian culture and civilisation were proclaimed superior. Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekanand, etc. were the leaders of these movements.
✅ Reformists Movements of that time, such as Brahmo Samaj (led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy), etc. condemned existing untouchability and tried to abolish the caste system. Their ideas of equality and brotherhood attracted the lower castes towards nationalism. These reforms also focussed upon emancipation of women. They opposed the practice of sati, supported re-marriage of widows and also promoted spread of education among women. All these helped women to join national movements
✅Conclusion: Apart from the progressive character of social religious reforms, role of press, English education, result and reaction of colonial policies, etc. have also played a significant role in developing national identity in India.
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Q4. Assess the impact of global warming on coral life system with examples. (Answer in 150 words, 10 Marks)
Answer : Destruction of coral reef can be induced by a variety of factors, alone or in combination. However, unprecedented global warming and climate change combined with growing local pressures have resulted in destruction of coral reefs to a large extent.
◾️ Impact of global warming on the coral life system:-
✅ Coral Bleaching :-
•The impacts from coral bleaching are becoming global in scale, and are increasing in frequency and intensity.
•Mass coral bleaching generally happen, when temperatures around coral reefs exceed 1 degree Celsius above an area’s historical norm for four or more weeks. Sea surface temperature increases have been strongly associated with El Nino weather patterns.
•However, light intensity, (during doldrums, i.e. flat calm conditions), also plays a critical role in triggering the bleaching response. If temperatures climb to more than 20 C for similar or longer periods, coral mortalities following bleaching increase.
✅ Rising sea levels :-
•Observations since 1961 show that the average temperature of the global ocean has increased even at depths of 3000m (IPCC report), and that the ocean has been absorbing more than 80% of the heat added to the climate system. Such warming causes sea level rise and creates problems for low-lying nations and islands.
✅ Ocean acidification :-
•It refers to a change in ocean chemistry in response to the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is in equilibrium with that in seawater, so when atmospheric concentrations increase, so do oceanic concentrations.
•Carbon dioxide entering seawater reacts to form carbonic acid, causing an increase in acidity.
•Each year, the ocean absorbs about one-quarter of the carbon dioxide emitted from the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas).
•Since the Industrial Revolution, ocean acidity has increased by about 30%, a rate that is more than 10 times what has previously occurred for millions of years. Further, ocean acidity levels are expected to increase by an additional 40% above present levels by the end of this century.
✅Conclusion: Coral reefs harbour the highest biodiversity of any ecosystem globally and directly support over 500 million people worldwide, mostly in poor countries. However, according to UNESCO, the coral reefs in all 29 reef-containing World Heritage sites would cease to exist by the end of this century, if we continue to emit greenhouse gases. Limiting global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels in line with the Paris Agreement provides the only chance for the survival of coral reefs globally.
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Answer : Destruction of coral reef can be induced by a variety of factors, alone or in combination. However, unprecedented global warming and climate change combined with growing local pressures have resulted in destruction of coral reefs to a large extent.
◾️ Impact of global warming on the coral life system:-
✅ Coral Bleaching :-
•The impacts from coral bleaching are becoming global in scale, and are increasing in frequency and intensity.
•Mass coral bleaching generally happen, when temperatures around coral reefs exceed 1 degree Celsius above an area’s historical norm for four or more weeks. Sea surface temperature increases have been strongly associated with El Nino weather patterns.
•However, light intensity, (during doldrums, i.e. flat calm conditions), also plays a critical role in triggering the bleaching response. If temperatures climb to more than 20 C for similar or longer periods, coral mortalities following bleaching increase.
✅ Rising sea levels :-
•Observations since 1961 show that the average temperature of the global ocean has increased even at depths of 3000m (IPCC report), and that the ocean has been absorbing more than 80% of the heat added to the climate system. Such warming causes sea level rise and creates problems for low-lying nations and islands.
✅ Ocean acidification :-
•It refers to a change in ocean chemistry in response to the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is in equilibrium with that in seawater, so when atmospheric concentrations increase, so do oceanic concentrations.
•Carbon dioxide entering seawater reacts to form carbonic acid, causing an increase in acidity.
•Each year, the ocean absorbs about one-quarter of the carbon dioxide emitted from the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas).
•Since the Industrial Revolution, ocean acidity has increased by about 30%, a rate that is more than 10 times what has previously occurred for millions of years. Further, ocean acidity levels are expected to increase by an additional 40% above present levels by the end of this century.
✅Conclusion: Coral reefs harbour the highest biodiversity of any ecosystem globally and directly support over 500 million people worldwide, mostly in poor countries. However, according to UNESCO, the coral reefs in all 29 reef-containing World Heritage sites would cease to exist by the end of this century, if we continue to emit greenhouse gases. Limiting global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels in line with the Paris Agreement provides the only chance for the survival of coral reefs globally.
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Q5. Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology. (Answer in 150 words, 10 Marks)
Ans. Mangrove forests form a unique wetland ecosystem, inhabiting the edge of land and sea, thriving in seawater. Over the past four decades, 35% of global mangrove forests have been destroyed. This degradation of mangrove forests has a knock-on effect on some of the world’s most endangered species which rely on them for habitat, such as the proboscis monkey and the Bengal tiger
🔆Causes of depletion of mangroves
▪️The natural causes
•Cyclones, typhoons and strong wave action, especially in the geographically vulnerable Andaman and Nicobar Islands;
•Browsing and trampling by wildlife (e.g. deer) and livestock (goats, buffaloes and cows), which are often left to graze freely, especially in the areas close to human habitation;
•Damage by oysters to the young leaves and plumules of Rhizophora and Ceriops plants; crabs, which attack young seedlings, girdle the root collars and eat the fleshy tissues of the propagules
•Insect pests, such as wood borers, caterpillars (which eat the mangrove foliage and damage the wood as well) and beetles;
▪️Anthropogenic causes
•Anthropogenic activities, such as construction of houses and markets causing soil erosion and soil sedimentation has led to their destruction. For example, in Sunderbans collection of tiger prawn seeds for trade has greatly affected the other animals found in these forests.
•Indiscriminate tree felling and lopping, mainly for fuel wood, fodder and timber, especially in the areas close to human habitation.
•Indiscriminate conversion of mangroves on public lands for aquaculture (e.g. for prawn culture at Chorao, Goa), agriculture, mining (e.g. along the Mapusa estuary in Goa), human habitation and industrial purposes.
•Encroachment on publicly owned mangrove forest lands, e.g. cultivation of paddy observed on government land, which involved uprooting of natural and planted seedlings;
•Lack of interest of private landowners (village communities and individuals) in conserving and developing the mangroves on their lands.
•Illegal large-scale collection of mangrove fruits for production of medicines, which hinders their natural regeneration.
•Discharge of industrial pollutants into creeks, rivers and estuaries, which is a major problem in some regions of the world.
✅Importance of mangroves in maintaining coastal ecology :-
•Mangrove plants have (additional) special roots, such as prop roots, pneumatophores which help to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment in the areas (where it is already occurring), stabilise the coastal shores, provide a breeding ground for fishes.
•Provide a safe and favourable environment for breeding, spawning, rearing of several fishes.
•They supply woods, firewood, medicinal plants and edible plants to local people.
•Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce inundation of coastal lowlands.
•They prevent coastal soil erosion.
•They protect coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes and floods.
•Mangroves enhance the natural recycling of nutrients.
Conclusion: Mangrove forests play a major role with more valuable ecological services. Therefore, conservation of the same is the need of the hour not only for the coastal biodiversity but also for well-being of the mankind.
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Ans. Mangrove forests form a unique wetland ecosystem, inhabiting the edge of land and sea, thriving in seawater. Over the past four decades, 35% of global mangrove forests have been destroyed. This degradation of mangrove forests has a knock-on effect on some of the world’s most endangered species which rely on them for habitat, such as the proboscis monkey and the Bengal tiger
🔆Causes of depletion of mangroves
▪️The natural causes
•Cyclones, typhoons and strong wave action, especially in the geographically vulnerable Andaman and Nicobar Islands;
•Browsing and trampling by wildlife (e.g. deer) and livestock (goats, buffaloes and cows), which are often left to graze freely, especially in the areas close to human habitation;
•Damage by oysters to the young leaves and plumules of Rhizophora and Ceriops plants; crabs, which attack young seedlings, girdle the root collars and eat the fleshy tissues of the propagules
•Insect pests, such as wood borers, caterpillars (which eat the mangrove foliage and damage the wood as well) and beetles;
▪️Anthropogenic causes
•Anthropogenic activities, such as construction of houses and markets causing soil erosion and soil sedimentation has led to their destruction. For example, in Sunderbans collection of tiger prawn seeds for trade has greatly affected the other animals found in these forests.
•Indiscriminate tree felling and lopping, mainly for fuel wood, fodder and timber, especially in the areas close to human habitation.
•Indiscriminate conversion of mangroves on public lands for aquaculture (e.g. for prawn culture at Chorao, Goa), agriculture, mining (e.g. along the Mapusa estuary in Goa), human habitation and industrial purposes.
•Encroachment on publicly owned mangrove forest lands, e.g. cultivation of paddy observed on government land, which involved uprooting of natural and planted seedlings;
•Lack of interest of private landowners (village communities and individuals) in conserving and developing the mangroves on their lands.
•Illegal large-scale collection of mangrove fruits for production of medicines, which hinders their natural regeneration.
•Discharge of industrial pollutants into creeks, rivers and estuaries, which is a major problem in some regions of the world.
✅Importance of mangroves in maintaining coastal ecology :-
•Mangrove plants have (additional) special roots, such as prop roots, pneumatophores which help to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment in the areas (where it is already occurring), stabilise the coastal shores, provide a breeding ground for fishes.
•Provide a safe and favourable environment for breeding, spawning, rearing of several fishes.
•They supply woods, firewood, medicinal plants and edible plants to local people.
•Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce inundation of coastal lowlands.
•They prevent coastal soil erosion.
•They protect coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes and floods.
•Mangroves enhance the natural recycling of nutrients.
Conclusion: Mangrove forests play a major role with more valuable ecological services. Therefore, conservation of the same is the need of the hour not only for the coastal biodiversity but also for well-being of the mankind.
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#Ecology_and_environment
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Q6. Can the strategy of regional resource base manufacturing help in promoting employment in India ? (150 words, 10 Marks)
Answer:- A local resource-based approach applies a cost-effective use of local skills, enterprises, labour and materials in the infrastructure delivery process. The process optimizes the social and economic impact of investments in manufacturing by ensuring that these investments are channeled through the local economy, thereby creating job opportunities and stimulating local markets,entrepreneurship and industry while safeguarding cost effectiveness, quality and sustainable asset delivery.
🔆Reason for Opting for local resource-based technologies :-
◾️Government development objectives aim to generate employment and income opportunities for the local population and domestic industry.
◾️The infrastructure concerned requires relatively modest investments, e.g., rural roads, secondary and tertiary irrigation channels and small and medium-scale structures.
◾️Local resources including labour, skills, enterprises and materials are available.
◾️ Scarcity of foreign exchange makes the use of imported inputs an economically unattractive option.
◾️A significant proportion of the population is un or under-employed
◾️Wage levels are low.
🔆How it can help in promoting employment in India?
◾️Local resource-based approach is to deliver public (and private) investments in infrastructure as a means of expanding employment opportunities for the unemployed, raising productivity, providing social and economic infrastructure assets and facilities, permitting trade and generally improving well-being.
◾️Given the relative scarcity of capital and skilled labour, and the relative abundance of unskilled labour, countries with low incomes can rapidly achieve pro-poor growth by applying employment friendly technologies in as many sectors as possible. This would rapidly increase the demand for unskilled and low-skilled labour.
🔆Benefits of a local resource-based approach
◾️It enables higher delivery and maintenance rates of basic assets and services essential for socio-economic development, such as vital access roads, water supplies, markets and health facilities with the same level of investment and at comparable or better quality standards.
◾️Creates jobs, particularly for the unskilled, poorer men and women within the community. This results in the injection of income into the local communities, with the immediate effect of increasing their purchasing power. This, in turn, results in improving living standards, such as improved diets, ability to access socioeconomic amenities, such as schools, clinics, etc.
◾️Stimulates local entrepreneurship, community participation and local economic development with important income distribution effects.
◾️Enables the involvement of the local private sector and industry, that is, contractors, suppliers and manufactures of local materials, tools and equipment. Hence, nurtures and develops the local construction and manufacturing industry, retains investment locally and saves on foreign exchange required for foreign imports.
🔅Conclusion: Thus, Regional Development leads to the distribution of employment opportunities on an equitable basis and they are not confined only to a handful of states which otherwise might create gaps in the per capita income among different regions.
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Answer:- A local resource-based approach applies a cost-effective use of local skills, enterprises, labour and materials in the infrastructure delivery process. The process optimizes the social and economic impact of investments in manufacturing by ensuring that these investments are channeled through the local economy, thereby creating job opportunities and stimulating local markets,entrepreneurship and industry while safeguarding cost effectiveness, quality and sustainable asset delivery.
🔆Reason for Opting for local resource-based technologies :-
◾️Government development objectives aim to generate employment and income opportunities for the local population and domestic industry.
◾️The infrastructure concerned requires relatively modest investments, e.g., rural roads, secondary and tertiary irrigation channels and small and medium-scale structures.
◾️Local resources including labour, skills, enterprises and materials are available.
◾️ Scarcity of foreign exchange makes the use of imported inputs an economically unattractive option.
◾️A significant proportion of the population is un or under-employed
◾️Wage levels are low.
🔆How it can help in promoting employment in India?
◾️Local resource-based approach is to deliver public (and private) investments in infrastructure as a means of expanding employment opportunities for the unemployed, raising productivity, providing social and economic infrastructure assets and facilities, permitting trade and generally improving well-being.
◾️Given the relative scarcity of capital and skilled labour, and the relative abundance of unskilled labour, countries with low incomes can rapidly achieve pro-poor growth by applying employment friendly technologies in as many sectors as possible. This would rapidly increase the demand for unskilled and low-skilled labour.
🔆Benefits of a local resource-based approach
◾️It enables higher delivery and maintenance rates of basic assets and services essential for socio-economic development, such as vital access roads, water supplies, markets and health facilities with the same level of investment and at comparable or better quality standards.
◾️Creates jobs, particularly for the unskilled, poorer men and women within the community. This results in the injection of income into the local communities, with the immediate effect of increasing their purchasing power. This, in turn, results in improving living standards, such as improved diets, ability to access socioeconomic amenities, such as schools, clinics, etc.
◾️Stimulates local entrepreneurship, community participation and local economic development with important income distribution effects.
◾️Enables the involvement of the local private sector and industry, that is, contractors, suppliers and manufactures of local materials, tools and equipment. Hence, nurtures and develops the local construction and manufacturing industry, retains investment locally and saves on foreign exchange required for foreign imports.
🔅Conclusion: Thus, Regional Development leads to the distribution of employment opportunities on an equitable basis and they are not confined only to a handful of states which otherwise might create gaps in the per capita income among different regions.
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Q7. Discuss the factors for localization of agro-based food processing industries of North-West India. (Answer in 150 words, 10 Marks)
Ans. Food processing is a large sector that covers activities such as agriculture, horticulture, plantation, animal husbandry and fisheries. Agro based food processing is defined as a set of techno-economic activities, applied to all the products, originating from agricultural farm, aqua cultural sources, livestock and forests for their conservation, handling and value addition to make them usable as food, feed, fiber, fuel or industrial raw materials.
🔆 Localisation of Agro-based food procesing industries of North-West India North western states like Punjab , Haryana and North Rajasthan have extensive network of agro based food processing industries. Some of the factors for localization are :
✅Raw material base: Punjab one of the highest producers of wheat and rice, Rajasthan important area for millet, Haryana for milk and livestock.
✅Robust agri marketing infrastructure: Punjab has close to 30 agro processing clusters(one of highest in India).
✅ Robust infrastructure: extensive network of good roads and internal container depots.
✅Stable adequate and cheap energy: Most NW states are energy surplus.
✅ Governance: Prompt MSP procurement in these areas encourage rice millers, Support to FPIs in form of tax incentives and subsidies.
✅Geographical advantage: Plain areas and close location to key markets like Delhi Challenges
✅Agribusiness is characterized by raw materials that are mostly perishable, variable in quality and not regularly available.
✅The sector is subject to stringent regulatory controls on consumer safety, product quality and environmental protection.
Conclusion: Agro-based industries needs to be set up at rural areas where raw material may be available in plenty –helps in the up-liftment of the rural economy. It provides rural population an opportunity for employment, generates income and thereby improves economic condition of people – which in turn creates potential for demand based industries.
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Ans. Food processing is a large sector that covers activities such as agriculture, horticulture, plantation, animal husbandry and fisheries. Agro based food processing is defined as a set of techno-economic activities, applied to all the products, originating from agricultural farm, aqua cultural sources, livestock and forests for their conservation, handling and value addition to make them usable as food, feed, fiber, fuel or industrial raw materials.
🔆 Localisation of Agro-based food procesing industries of North-West India North western states like Punjab , Haryana and North Rajasthan have extensive network of agro based food processing industries. Some of the factors for localization are :
✅Raw material base: Punjab one of the highest producers of wheat and rice, Rajasthan important area for millet, Haryana for milk and livestock.
✅Robust agri marketing infrastructure: Punjab has close to 30 agro processing clusters(one of highest in India).
✅ Robust infrastructure: extensive network of good roads and internal container depots.
✅Stable adequate and cheap energy: Most NW states are energy surplus.
✅ Governance: Prompt MSP procurement in these areas encourage rice millers, Support to FPIs in form of tax incentives and subsidies.
✅Geographical advantage: Plain areas and close location to key markets like Delhi Challenges
✅Agribusiness is characterized by raw materials that are mostly perishable, variable in quality and not regularly available.
✅The sector is subject to stringent regulatory controls on consumer safety, product quality and environmental protection.
Conclusion: Agro-based industries needs to be set up at rural areas where raw material may be available in plenty –helps in the up-liftment of the rural economy. It provides rural population an opportunity for employment, generates income and thereby improves economic condition of people – which in turn creates potential for demand based industries.
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Q8. What makes the Indian society unique in sustaining its culture? Discuss. (Answer in 150 words 10 Marks)
Ans. Culture is a way of life of people. It includes architecture, literature, art, science, etc. Although Indian society is multi-cultural, plural, diverse having different religions, traditions, philosophies and lifestyles, yet it is able to sustain its diverse culture.
🔆 Features of Indian Society which led to is sustainability :-
✅ Principles of Tolerance and Respect: Indian society has been founded upon these principles which result in mutual respect and understanding for each other. The religions like Buddhism and Jainism have been founded upon these.
✅ Assimilation Process: Migrants from the times of Aryans to the Mughals have come and lived in India peacefully assimilating into the Indian way of life, thereby sustaining the culture of the nation.
✅ Spiritualism: Indians have been always curious to find a unique way of life giving rise to spiritualistic elements in the way of life. The various philosophies have given way to a spiritual dimension in the way of living of people.
✅ Geographical: The monsoon makes the Indian subcontinent very suitable for the development of agriculture. Agriculture gives way to tradition, festivals, interaction which over a long period turns into lifestyles of people.
✅ Secular: Indian society has been practicing trends that have not been associated with any particular religion. These practices have been incorporated in other religions as well and have been provided with space to co-exist. Ex: Festivals like Holi have been celebrated without being restricted to religious practice of any particular community.
✅ Governance: It was basically based upon the agricultural aspect. This administration has remained more or less similar from the time of Ashoka to that of Akbar.
✅ Political: The democratic threads have always been in the Indian polity though ruled by the King. Sabhas and Samitis in the ancient times to the Janapadas in the medieval times have always been focused on the promotion of interests of the people.
✅ Social: The tribals today are living their unique life depicting that they have been able to sustain their culture irrespective of foreign domination on the country. Various castes also have their unique way of living.
Conclusion: Though the foreigners have come to India looking at her as Golden Bird, but they assimilated into the culture of the Indian people and interacted with the commoners in their unique way and settled here as the Indians. This has given rise to the Great Indian way of life depicting Unity in Diversity where everyone would live with dignity and fraternity.
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Ans. Culture is a way of life of people. It includes architecture, literature, art, science, etc. Although Indian society is multi-cultural, plural, diverse having different religions, traditions, philosophies and lifestyles, yet it is able to sustain its diverse culture.
🔆 Features of Indian Society which led to is sustainability :-
✅ Principles of Tolerance and Respect: Indian society has been founded upon these principles which result in mutual respect and understanding for each other. The religions like Buddhism and Jainism have been founded upon these.
✅ Assimilation Process: Migrants from the times of Aryans to the Mughals have come and lived in India peacefully assimilating into the Indian way of life, thereby sustaining the culture of the nation.
✅ Spiritualism: Indians have been always curious to find a unique way of life giving rise to spiritualistic elements in the way of life. The various philosophies have given way to a spiritual dimension in the way of living of people.
✅ Geographical: The monsoon makes the Indian subcontinent very suitable for the development of agriculture. Agriculture gives way to tradition, festivals, interaction which over a long period turns into lifestyles of people.
✅ Secular: Indian society has been practicing trends that have not been associated with any particular religion. These practices have been incorporated in other religions as well and have been provided with space to co-exist. Ex: Festivals like Holi have been celebrated without being restricted to religious practice of any particular community.
✅ Governance: It was basically based upon the agricultural aspect. This administration has remained more or less similar from the time of Ashoka to that of Akbar.
✅ Political: The democratic threads have always been in the Indian polity though ruled by the King. Sabhas and Samitis in the ancient times to the Janapadas in the medieval times have always been focused on the promotion of interests of the people.
✅ Social: The tribals today are living their unique life depicting that they have been able to sustain their culture irrespective of foreign domination on the country. Various castes also have their unique way of living.
Conclusion: Though the foreigners have come to India looking at her as Golden Bird, but they assimilated into the culture of the Indian people and interacted with the commoners in their unique way and settled here as the Indians. This has given rise to the Great Indian way of life depicting Unity in Diversity where everyone would live with dignity and fraternity.
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Q9. “Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss (Answer in 150 words)
Ans. Empowerment refers to measures designed to increase the degree of autonomy and self determination in people and in communities in order to enable them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-determined way, acting on their own authority. It is the process of becoming stronger and more confident, especially in controlling one’s life and claiming one’s rights.
🔆How women empowerment will help in tackling population growth:
✅ Political Empowerment: This would result in increase in women’s participation in the political processes, structures, institutions. This would enhance the voice of women at different platforms. Hence, women will be able to raise awareness about need of small families and birth control and the associated benefits.
✅ Economic Empowerment: This will lead to the participation of women in the economic activities. It will increase the family income and also improve the situation of women in making financial decisions. Thus, there will be fewer requirement of income generating options which led to giving birth to more children. Thus, this would check the population growth.
✅ Social Empowerment: This would result in the improved status and boost confidence of the women. This confidence would ultimately affect the decision making ability of the women. They would be able to take decisions regarding number of children they want.
✅ Constitutional Empowerment: This would result in rise in awareness of the women about their constitutional rights including right to life and liberty, freedom, and equality. Hence, women will be able to make choices in the family planning and number of children they want to have.
✅ Technological Empowerment: If women are able to use technology like mobile phones, etc., they would be able to receive the information about the advantages of small families and right age of having children. Also, this would lead to the improved reproductive and general health of women as the women would be aware of the options of various birth control measures like pills, tablets, etc.
Conclusion: Hence, there is a saying that “If you educate a man, you educate only a man, but if you educate a woman, you educate a whole generation”. This is the kind of effect women have and hence, population control can be achieved by the empowerment of women in various spheres. This would have multiplier effect on other institutions of the society and economy and lead to sustainable development.
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Ans. Empowerment refers to measures designed to increase the degree of autonomy and self determination in people and in communities in order to enable them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-determined way, acting on their own authority. It is the process of becoming stronger and more confident, especially in controlling one’s life and claiming one’s rights.
🔆How women empowerment will help in tackling population growth:
✅ Political Empowerment: This would result in increase in women’s participation in the political processes, structures, institutions. This would enhance the voice of women at different platforms. Hence, women will be able to raise awareness about need of small families and birth control and the associated benefits.
✅ Economic Empowerment: This will lead to the participation of women in the economic activities. It will increase the family income and also improve the situation of women in making financial decisions. Thus, there will be fewer requirement of income generating options which led to giving birth to more children. Thus, this would check the population growth.
✅ Social Empowerment: This would result in the improved status and boost confidence of the women. This confidence would ultimately affect the decision making ability of the women. They would be able to take decisions regarding number of children they want.
✅ Constitutional Empowerment: This would result in rise in awareness of the women about their constitutional rights including right to life and liberty, freedom, and equality. Hence, women will be able to make choices in the family planning and number of children they want to have.
✅ Technological Empowerment: If women are able to use technology like mobile phones, etc., they would be able to receive the information about the advantages of small families and right age of having children. Also, this would lead to the improved reproductive and general health of women as the women would be aware of the options of various birth control measures like pills, tablets, etc.
Conclusion: Hence, there is a saying that “If you educate a man, you educate only a man, but if you educate a woman, you educate a whole generation”. This is the kind of effect women have and hence, population control can be achieved by the empowerment of women in various spheres. This would have multiplier effect on other institutions of the society and economy and lead to sustainable development.
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Q10. What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism (Answer in 150 words for 10 marks)
Ans. Secularism in India is different from western concept. It stands for mutual respect, understanding and tolerance for all the religions, major or minor and accepting difference of opinion. Cultural practices are the living ways of life of people, individual or collective, in the political, economic, social spheres.
🔆 Various challenges faced by the cultural practices in the name of secularism:
✅ Intolerance and Violence: This leads to lack of tolerance and respect for each other. Deaths and violence in the name of cow protection are examples of this.
✅ Majoritarianism: This reflects upon use of religion for political mobilization of the people and spreading hatred against the minorities may be it Muslims, like case of Muzaffarnagar, Sikhs as in 1984, Christians as in Kandhamal.
✅ Radicalization: The people are taken into believing ideologies which are extreme and may harm unity and integrity of the country. Security situations can be faced by the expansion of terrorism and exploitation of the vulnerable masses.
✅ Votebank Politics: Candidates attempt to align themselves with the issues of a particular religious group in the hope of winning in elections.
✅ Alienation: The people get distanced away from their traditional roots and feel socially, psychologically distant from other people in the name of religion. The people going to Middle East for ISIS, etc. is an example of this. Moreover, the various challenges may hamper the inclusiveness of Indian democratic culture by promoting the ideological alienation. The above can result in Distance from Education, Employ ability, Excellence, fraternity and dignity of individual.
Conclusion: Thus, the challenges to the cultural practices in the name of secularism are several, affecting the people’s rights to life and liberty, dignity and fraternity. However, in essence, our cultural practices are founded upon the principles and philosophies of tolerance, non violence, truth, Vasudhaiv Kutumbakam (world is one family), etc., which in turn are reflected in our modern constitutional principles. Thus, following them in practice would act as an effective check and balance against the challenges of modern times.
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Ans. Secularism in India is different from western concept. It stands for mutual respect, understanding and tolerance for all the religions, major or minor and accepting difference of opinion. Cultural practices are the living ways of life of people, individual or collective, in the political, economic, social spheres.
🔆 Various challenges faced by the cultural practices in the name of secularism:
✅ Intolerance and Violence: This leads to lack of tolerance and respect for each other. Deaths and violence in the name of cow protection are examples of this.
✅ Majoritarianism: This reflects upon use of religion for political mobilization of the people and spreading hatred against the minorities may be it Muslims, like case of Muzaffarnagar, Sikhs as in 1984, Christians as in Kandhamal.
✅ Radicalization: The people are taken into believing ideologies which are extreme and may harm unity and integrity of the country. Security situations can be faced by the expansion of terrorism and exploitation of the vulnerable masses.
✅ Votebank Politics: Candidates attempt to align themselves with the issues of a particular religious group in the hope of winning in elections.
✅ Alienation: The people get distanced away from their traditional roots and feel socially, psychologically distant from other people in the name of religion. The people going to Middle East for ISIS, etc. is an example of this. Moreover, the various challenges may hamper the inclusiveness of Indian democratic culture by promoting the ideological alienation. The above can result in Distance from Education, Employ ability, Excellence, fraternity and dignity of individual.
Conclusion: Thus, the challenges to the cultural practices in the name of secularism are several, affecting the people’s rights to life and liberty, dignity and fraternity. However, in essence, our cultural practices are founded upon the principles and philosophies of tolerance, non violence, truth, Vasudhaiv Kutumbakam (world is one family), etc., which in turn are reflected in our modern constitutional principles. Thus, following them in practice would act as an effective check and balance against the challenges of modern times.
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Q11. Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the Gandhian phase. Elaborate (Answer in 250 words, 15 Marks)
🔆 Voices that strengthened and enriched nationalist movement are as follow:
✅Socialist Voice :-
•The emergence of socialism in Congress during 1920s and 1930s imparted a new orientation to anti-British struggle.
•Anti-British struggle got radicalised greatly because socialists wanted that the idea of non violence should be followed by congress in a pragmatic manner for the mistakes of one or few individuals, entire movement must not be made to suffer.
•The emergence of socialism gradually transformed national movement into an all out war against British rule.
✅Revolutionary Extremists Voice :-
•Indian revolutionaries provided an alternative to all those nationalists was participated in anti-British struggle and were not satisfied with the moderate approach of congress.
•The supreme self-sacrifice performed by Indian revolutionaries inspired lakhs of Indians to join anti- British struggle. This helped in strengthening public opinion against British rule.
✅Swarajists Voice :-
•Swarajists provided an alternative to Indian nationalists at a time when a sense of disillusionment had developed among Indians due to sudden withdrawal of non- cooperation movement.
•Through their efforts swarajists exposed the hollowness of reforms introduced by the Act of 1919. They proved that the real power was still in British hands.
•Appointment of Simon commission in November 1927 changed the atmosphere prevailing in India. The swarajists also abandoned their separate line of action and joined hands with mainstream congress to participate in anti-Simon commission agitation.
✅ Indian Working Class as well as Leftist voice :-
•During 1920-22, there occurred a resurgence of working class in Indian national movement which got involved in the mainstream of nationalist politics to a significant extent.
• Most important development was formation of All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC).
•The workers participated in large numbers during 1930 in the CDM.
✅Women’s voice strengthening and enriching nationalist movement: -
•Women participated in large numbers in the CDM and Quit India Movement. They organised boycotts against liquor and foreign goods and were instrumental in Dandi March.
•Sarojini Naidu, also fondly known as the Nightingale of India, was an outstanding leader campaigning and leading from the front in the Civil Disobedience Movement and Salt Satyagraha.
•Annie Besant was elected the president of the INC and launched the Home Rule Movement.
•Madam Cama exiled in Europe was a social worker and a strong nationalist. She unfurled the flag of Indian Independence in Stuttgart Germany along with a powerful speech advocating the right to freedom.
Conclusion: There was a greater truth– that of a glorious struggle, hard-fought and hard-won, in which many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement and made countless sacrifices, dreaming of the day India would be free.
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ANSWER:- The period from 1920 to 1947 has been described as the Gandhian Era in Indian politics. During this period, Gandhiji had the final say behalf of the Indian National Congress in negotiating with the British Government for constitutional reforms, and for chalking out a programme for the national movement. Mahatma Gandhi led the national freedom struggle against the British rule and it also gave space and voice to many other voices which further strengthened the movement. 🔆 Voices that strengthened and enriched nationalist movement are as follow:
✅Socialist Voice :-
•The emergence of socialism in Congress during 1920s and 1930s imparted a new orientation to anti-British struggle.
•Anti-British struggle got radicalised greatly because socialists wanted that the idea of non violence should be followed by congress in a pragmatic manner for the mistakes of one or few individuals, entire movement must not be made to suffer.
•The emergence of socialism gradually transformed national movement into an all out war against British rule.
✅Revolutionary Extremists Voice :-
•Indian revolutionaries provided an alternative to all those nationalists was participated in anti-British struggle and were not satisfied with the moderate approach of congress.
•The supreme self-sacrifice performed by Indian revolutionaries inspired lakhs of Indians to join anti- British struggle. This helped in strengthening public opinion against British rule.
✅Swarajists Voice :-
•Swarajists provided an alternative to Indian nationalists at a time when a sense of disillusionment had developed among Indians due to sudden withdrawal of non- cooperation movement.
•Through their efforts swarajists exposed the hollowness of reforms introduced by the Act of 1919. They proved that the real power was still in British hands.
•Appointment of Simon commission in November 1927 changed the atmosphere prevailing in India. The swarajists also abandoned their separate line of action and joined hands with mainstream congress to participate in anti-Simon commission agitation.
✅ Indian Working Class as well as Leftist voice :-
•During 1920-22, there occurred a resurgence of working class in Indian national movement which got involved in the mainstream of nationalist politics to a significant extent.
• Most important development was formation of All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC).
•The workers participated in large numbers during 1930 in the CDM.
✅Women’s voice strengthening and enriching nationalist movement: -
•Women participated in large numbers in the CDM and Quit India Movement. They organised boycotts against liquor and foreign goods and were instrumental in Dandi March.
•Sarojini Naidu, also fondly known as the Nightingale of India, was an outstanding leader campaigning and leading from the front in the Civil Disobedience Movement and Salt Satyagraha.
•Annie Besant was elected the president of the INC and launched the Home Rule Movement.
•Madam Cama exiled in Europe was a social worker and a strong nationalist. She unfurled the flag of Indian Independence in Stuttgart Germany along with a powerful speech advocating the right to freedom.
Conclusion: There was a greater truth– that of a glorious struggle, hard-fought and hard-won, in which many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement and made countless sacrifices, dreaming of the day India would be free.
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Q12. Assess the role of British imperial power in complicating the process of transfer of power during the 1940s. ( 250 words )
🔆 Why it complicated the process of transfer of power:
✅ Cripps Mission- 1942:
▪️ An Indian Union with a dominion status would be set up; it would be free to decide its relations with the Commonwealth and free to participate in the United Nations and other international bodies.
▪️After the end of the war, a constituent assembly would be convened to frame a new constitution. Members of this assembly would be partly elected by the provincial assemblies through proportional representation and partly nominated by the princes.
▪️The British government would accept the new constitution subject to two conditions:
i. Any province not willing to join the Union could have a separate constitution and form a separate Union, and
ii. The new constitution- making body and the British government would negotiate a treaty to affect the transfer of power and to safeguard racial and religious minorities.
iii. In the meantime, defence of India would remain in British hands and the governor general’s powers would remain intact.
✅ Various parties and groups had objections to the proposals on different points:
▪️The Congress objected to the offer of dominion status instead of a provision for complete independence;
▪️ Representation of the princely states by nominees and not by elected representatives;
▪️ right to provinces to secede as this went against the Principle of national unity; and absence of any plan for immediate transfer of power and absence of any real share in defence; the governor general’s supremacy had been retained, and the demand that the governor general be only the constitutional head had not been accepted.
✅ Wavell Plan :
▪️ With the exception of the governor general and the commander-in-chief, all members of the executive council were to be Indians.
▪️ Caste Hindus and Muslims were to have equal representation.
▪️ The reconstructed council was to function as an interim government within the framework of the 1935 Act (i.e. not responsible to the Central Assembly).
▪️ The governor-general was to exercise his veto on the advice of ministers.
▪️Possibilities were to be kept open for negotiations on a new constitution once the war was finally won.
✅ Why Wavell Plan complicated the process of transfer of power:
Congress Stand:
▪️ The Congress objected to the plan as “an attempt to reduce the Congress to the status of a purely caste Hindu party.
▪️It insisted on its right to include members of all communities among its nominees”.
Muslim League’s Stand:
▪️The League wanted all Muslim members to be League nominees, because it feared that since the aims of other minorities—depressed classes; Sikhs, Christians, etc.—were the same as those of the Congress, and this arrangement would reduce the League to a one-third minority. (Wavell wanted Khizr Hyat Khan as the Muslim representative from Western Punjab.)
▪️ The League claimed some kind of veto in the council with decisions opposed to Muslims needing a two-thirds majority for approval.
Conclusion: The end of colonial rule in 1947 was undoubtedly a defining moment in the modern South Asian history. Though it was difficult due to the British policies in 1940s for transfer of power, the event can be treated as the twin process of independence and partition both affecting the future trajectories of the two nations.
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Answer:- Initially, the British did not pay any attention to the demand of transfer of power by India, but when World War II started, Britain came under immense pressure, as it needed full Indian support to counter this challenge. British came up with different plans and mission in 1940s. But these plans were not made with noble intention in favor of India, hence making the process of transfer of the power difficult.🔆 Why it complicated the process of transfer of power:
✅ Cripps Mission- 1942:
▪️ An Indian Union with a dominion status would be set up; it would be free to decide its relations with the Commonwealth and free to participate in the United Nations and other international bodies.
▪️After the end of the war, a constituent assembly would be convened to frame a new constitution. Members of this assembly would be partly elected by the provincial assemblies through proportional representation and partly nominated by the princes.
▪️The British government would accept the new constitution subject to two conditions:
i. Any province not willing to join the Union could have a separate constitution and form a separate Union, and
ii. The new constitution- making body and the British government would negotiate a treaty to affect the transfer of power and to safeguard racial and religious minorities.
iii. In the meantime, defence of India would remain in British hands and the governor general’s powers would remain intact.
✅ Various parties and groups had objections to the proposals on different points:
▪️The Congress objected to the offer of dominion status instead of a provision for complete independence;
▪️ Representation of the princely states by nominees and not by elected representatives;
▪️ right to provinces to secede as this went against the Principle of national unity; and absence of any plan for immediate transfer of power and absence of any real share in defence; the governor general’s supremacy had been retained, and the demand that the governor general be only the constitutional head had not been accepted.
✅ Wavell Plan :
▪️ With the exception of the governor general and the commander-in-chief, all members of the executive council were to be Indians.
▪️ Caste Hindus and Muslims were to have equal representation.
▪️ The reconstructed council was to function as an interim government within the framework of the 1935 Act (i.e. not responsible to the Central Assembly).
▪️ The governor-general was to exercise his veto on the advice of ministers.
▪️Possibilities were to be kept open for negotiations on a new constitution once the war was finally won.
✅ Why Wavell Plan complicated the process of transfer of power:
Congress Stand:
▪️ The Congress objected to the plan as “an attempt to reduce the Congress to the status of a purely caste Hindu party.
▪️It insisted on its right to include members of all communities among its nominees”.
Muslim League’s Stand:
▪️The League wanted all Muslim members to be League nominees, because it feared that since the aims of other minorities—depressed classes; Sikhs, Christians, etc.—were the same as those of the Congress, and this arrangement would reduce the League to a one-third minority. (Wavell wanted Khizr Hyat Khan as the Muslim representative from Western Punjab.)
▪️ The League claimed some kind of veto in the council with decisions opposed to Muslims needing a two-thirds majority for approval.
Conclusion: The end of colonial rule in 1947 was undoubtedly a defining moment in the modern South Asian history. Though it was difficult due to the British policies in 1940s for transfer of power, the event can be treated as the twin process of independence and partition both affecting the future trajectories of the two nations.
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✅ It generated a new power which gave birth to a new civilization. The declaration of human rights emphasise that sovereignty lies with the people and law is an expression of their will.
✅ It kicked a number of movements where people demanded not only political freedom but also right to property and freedom of expression.
✅ The revolution aroused the spirit of political, social and economic equality like women claimed equal rights with men.
✅ The impact of the French Revolution can be summed up, in the words of T. Kolokotrones, one of the revolutionary fighters in the Greek war of independence: “According to my judgment, the French Revolution and the doings of Napoleon opened the eyes of the world. The nations knew nothing before, and the people thought that kings were gods upon the earth and that they were bound to say that whatever they did was well done. Through this present change it is more difficult to rule the people.”
✅ Even though the old ruling dynasty of France had been restored to power in 1815, and the autocratic governments of Europe found themselves safe for the time being, the rulers found it increasingly difficult to rule the people.
✅ Some of the changes that took place in many parts of Europe and the Americas in the early 19th century were the immediate, direct consequences of the Revolution and the Napoleonic wars.
✅ The wars in which France was engaged with other European powers had resulted in the French occupation of vast areas of Europe for some time.
✅ The French soldiers, wherever they went, carried with them ideas of liberty and equality shaking the old feudal order. They destroyed serfdom in areas which came under their occupation and modernized the systems of administration.
✅ Under Napoleon, the French had become conquerors instead of liberators. The countries which organized popular resistance against the French occupation carried out reforms in their social and political system. The leading powers of Europe did not succeed in restoring the old order either in France or in the countries that the Revolution had reached.
✅ The political and social systems of the 18th century had received a heavy blow. They were soon to die in most of Europe under the impact of the revolutionary movements that sprang up everywhere in Europe.
▪️Conclusion:
On the whole, it may be said that the American and French revolution were exemplary events in the world history. American Revolution laid the foundation, while French Revolution constructed building of modern world (with Liberty, Equality, Fraternity). French Revolution gave inspiration to many movements like India’s Struggle for Freedom 1857-1947 to rise against tyranny and misrule. A new era began in the new world and paved the way for the new epoch for the old world.
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✅ It kicked a number of movements where people demanded not only political freedom but also right to property and freedom of expression.
✅ The revolution aroused the spirit of political, social and economic equality like women claimed equal rights with men.
✅ The impact of the French Revolution can be summed up, in the words of T. Kolokotrones, one of the revolutionary fighters in the Greek war of independence: “According to my judgment, the French Revolution and the doings of Napoleon opened the eyes of the world. The nations knew nothing before, and the people thought that kings were gods upon the earth and that they were bound to say that whatever they did was well done. Through this present change it is more difficult to rule the people.”
✅ Even though the old ruling dynasty of France had been restored to power in 1815, and the autocratic governments of Europe found themselves safe for the time being, the rulers found it increasingly difficult to rule the people.
✅ Some of the changes that took place in many parts of Europe and the Americas in the early 19th century were the immediate, direct consequences of the Revolution and the Napoleonic wars.
✅ The wars in which France was engaged with other European powers had resulted in the French occupation of vast areas of Europe for some time.
✅ The French soldiers, wherever they went, carried with them ideas of liberty and equality shaking the old feudal order. They destroyed serfdom in areas which came under their occupation and modernized the systems of administration.
✅ Under Napoleon, the French had become conquerors instead of liberators. The countries which organized popular resistance against the French occupation carried out reforms in their social and political system. The leading powers of Europe did not succeed in restoring the old order either in France or in the countries that the Revolution had reached.
✅ The political and social systems of the 18th century had received a heavy blow. They were soon to die in most of Europe under the impact of the revolutionary movements that sprang up everywhere in Europe.
▪️Conclusion:
On the whole, it may be said that the American and French revolution were exemplary events in the world history. American Revolution laid the foundation, while French Revolution constructed building of modern world (with Liberty, Equality, Fraternity). French Revolution gave inspiration to many movements like India’s Struggle for Freedom 1857-1947 to rise against tyranny and misrule. A new era began in the new world and paved the way for the new epoch for the old world.
Page 2/2
#History
#GSM1
#CSE2019
Join @CSE_MAINS_PYQ for more 😊
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