🔆BUDDHISM
✅The religion is based upon the teachings, life experiences of its founder Siddhartha Gautam, born in circa 563 BCE.
✅ Buddha asked his followers to avoid the two extremes of indulgence in worldly pleasure and the practice of strict abstinence and asceticism.
✅He ascribed instead the 'Madhyam Marg' or the middle path which was to be followed.
▪️GAUTAMA BUDDHA
(563 BC-483 BC)
✅He is also known as Siddharta, Sakyamuni & Tathagata
✅Belong to Sakya Clan
✅ Father: Siddhodana
✅ Mother: Mayadevi
✅ Birth Place: Lumbini, capital of Sakya republic
✅Teachers: Alarakama and UdrakaRamputra
✅Enlightenment: At age of 33 under Pipal tree at Uruvella (Bodhgaya) on banks of river Niranjana (Falgu).
✅First Sermon: Sarnath (Deer park) on Dharma Chakra Parivarthana to 5 disciples
including Mahakasyapa (first disciple)
✅Mahaparinirvana: At Kushinagar at age of 80.
▪️LITERARY SOURCES:
✅ Ceylonese Chronicles - MAHAVAMSA by Mahanama, DEPAVAMSA and ATTAKATHA
by Wattagamani.
✅Tibetan Chronicles- DIVYAVANDANA-KALACHAKRA
✅TRIPITAKA/ Three baskets of Buddhist scripture -
✅SUTTAPITAKA [sutra related to Buddha and companion]
✅ VINAYPITAKA [monastic rules] and
✅ABHIDHAMPITAKA [Doctrine and philosophy of Buddhism]
✅JATAKA FOLKLORE [stories related to birth of Buddha]/ In Chinese they are called SADOK.
✅MILINDAPANHA [Questions of Milinda that is greek king Meander and answers of
Buddhist monk nagasena]
3 JEWELS OF BUDDHISM (TRIRATNA)
✅Buddha, Dhamma & Sangha.
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✅The religion is based upon the teachings, life experiences of its founder Siddhartha Gautam, born in circa 563 BCE.
✅ Buddha asked his followers to avoid the two extremes of indulgence in worldly pleasure and the practice of strict abstinence and asceticism.
✅He ascribed instead the 'Madhyam Marg' or the middle path which was to be followed.
▪️GAUTAMA BUDDHA
(563 BC-483 BC)
✅He is also known as Siddharta, Sakyamuni & Tathagata
✅Belong to Sakya Clan
✅ Father: Siddhodana
✅ Mother: Mayadevi
✅ Birth Place: Lumbini, capital of Sakya republic
✅Teachers: Alarakama and UdrakaRamputra
✅Enlightenment: At age of 33 under Pipal tree at Uruvella (Bodhgaya) on banks of river Niranjana (Falgu).
✅First Sermon: Sarnath (Deer park) on Dharma Chakra Parivarthana to 5 disciples
including Mahakasyapa (first disciple)
✅Mahaparinirvana: At Kushinagar at age of 80.
▪️LITERARY SOURCES:
✅ Ceylonese Chronicles - MAHAVAMSA by Mahanama, DEPAVAMSA and ATTAKATHA
by Wattagamani.
✅Tibetan Chronicles- DIVYAVANDANA-KALACHAKRA
✅TRIPITAKA/ Three baskets of Buddhist scripture -
✅SUTTAPITAKA [sutra related to Buddha and companion]
✅ VINAYPITAKA [monastic rules] and
✅ABHIDHAMPITAKA [Doctrine and philosophy of Buddhism]
✅JATAKA FOLKLORE [stories related to birth of Buddha]/ In Chinese they are called SADOK.
✅MILINDAPANHA [Questions of Milinda that is greek king Meander and answers of
Buddhist monk nagasena]
3 JEWELS OF BUDDHISM (TRIRATNA)
✅Buddha, Dhamma & Sangha.
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🔆GREAT EVENTS OF BUDDHA’S LIFE - SYMBOLS
✅Avakranti (conception or descent) - White Elephant
✅Jati (birth) Lotus and - Bull
✅Mahabhinishkramana (Great Renunciation) - Horse
✅ Nirvana/ Sambodhi (enlightenment) - Bodhi tree
✅Dharmachakra Parivarthana (first Sermon) - Wheel
✅ Mahaparinirvana (Death) - Stupa
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✅Avakranti (conception or descent) - White Elephant
✅Jati (birth) Lotus and - Bull
✅Mahabhinishkramana (Great Renunciation) - Horse
✅ Nirvana/ Sambodhi (enlightenment) - Bodhi tree
✅Dharmachakra Parivarthana (first Sermon) - Wheel
✅ Mahaparinirvana (Death) - Stupa
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▪️5 TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA [PANCHSHILA]
1. No killing Respect for life.
2. Abstention from theft.
3. Abstention from sexual misconduct.
4. Abstention from falsehood.
5. Abstention from intoxication.
▪️4 NOBLE TRUTHS: ‘ARYA SATYAS’
1. World is full of misery (Sabbam Dukkam)
2. Desire is a root cause of sorrow (Pratitya Samputpada)
3. Desire can be conquered (DukhaNirodha)
4. Desire can be conquered by following Astangika marga.
▪️EIGHT-FOLD PATHS (ASTANGIKA MARGA)
The path consists of various interconnected activities related to knowledge,conduct, and meditative practices.
✅Right view + Right intention + Right speech + Right action + Right livelihood + Right mindfulness + Right effort + Right concentration
▪️FIVE PRECEPTS OR PANCHASHIL
✅Buddha also established code of conduct both for the monastic order and the
laymen to follow which are also known as the Five Precepts or Pancasil and refrain from them:
✅ Violence + Stealing + Sexual misconduct + Lying or gossip + Taking intoxicating
substances e.g. drugs or drink.
▪️THREE PITAKAS
✅The Vinaya Pitaka consists of rules of conduct and discipline applicable to the
monastic life of the monks and nuns.
✅ The Sutta Pitaka consists of the main teaching or Dhamma of Buddha. It is divided into five Nikayas or collections:
1. Digha Nikaya
2. Majjhima Nikaya
3. Samyutta Nikaya
4. Anguttara Nikaya
5. Khuddaka Nikaya
✅ The Abhidamma Pitaka is a philosophical analysis and systematization of the
teaching and the scholarly activity of the monks.
✅ Other important Buddhist texts include Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa,
Milind Panha etc.
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1. No killing Respect for life.
2. Abstention from theft.
3. Abstention from sexual misconduct.
4. Abstention from falsehood.
5. Abstention from intoxication.
▪️4 NOBLE TRUTHS: ‘ARYA SATYAS’
1. World is full of misery (Sabbam Dukkam)
2. Desire is a root cause of sorrow (Pratitya Samputpada)
3. Desire can be conquered (DukhaNirodha)
4. Desire can be conquered by following Astangika marga.
▪️EIGHT-FOLD PATHS (ASTANGIKA MARGA)
The path consists of various interconnected activities related to knowledge,conduct, and meditative practices.
✅Right view + Right intention + Right speech + Right action + Right livelihood + Right mindfulness + Right effort + Right concentration
▪️FIVE PRECEPTS OR PANCHASHIL
✅Buddha also established code of conduct both for the monastic order and the
laymen to follow which are also known as the Five Precepts or Pancasil and refrain from them:
✅ Violence + Stealing + Sexual misconduct + Lying or gossip + Taking intoxicating
substances e.g. drugs or drink.
▪️THREE PITAKAS
✅The Vinaya Pitaka consists of rules of conduct and discipline applicable to the
monastic life of the monks and nuns.
✅ The Sutta Pitaka consists of the main teaching or Dhamma of Buddha. It is divided into five Nikayas or collections:
1. Digha Nikaya
2. Majjhima Nikaya
3. Samyutta Nikaya
4. Anguttara Nikaya
5. Khuddaka Nikaya
✅ The Abhidamma Pitaka is a philosophical analysis and systematization of the
teaching and the scholarly activity of the monks.
✅ Other important Buddhist texts include Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa,
Milind Panha etc.
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▪️BUDDHIST SANGHA AND ITS FEATURES:
✅ The oldest prayer place in history where slaves, Insolvents, and diseased were not allowed.
✅There were 64 types of crimes called Pathimokshas, which were prohibited
✅ Women were also allowed to join.
▪️IMPORTANT BUDDHIST SCHOLARS:
✅MOGGALIPUTTA TISSA – launched ASHOKA’S dhamma campaign
✅ASVAGOSHA- wrote BUDDHACHARITA and Sanskrit drama SARIPUTRA PRAKRAN [sariputra the disciple of Buddha]
✅ NAGARJUNA - Founded madhyamik school of mahayanbuddism, gave theory of SUNYAVAD’ EMPTINESS’ and important work include ‘MULAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA’
✅BUDDHAGOSH - most important commentator of Theravada, important work is VISUDDIMAGGA.
✅DHARMAKIRTI - Teacher at Nalanda, called as ‘kant of india’
▪️UNESCO’S HERITAGE SITES RELATED TO BUDDHISM:
1. Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar
2. Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, MP
3. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya, Bihar
4. Ajanta Caves Aurangabad, Maharashtra
NOTE: Heritage City Development Scheme (HRIDAY) and identification of 3 Buddhist circuits are some of the few initiatives by central government to harness the Buddhist pilgrims to both augment the Tourism and employment opportunities.
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✅ The oldest prayer place in history where slaves, Insolvents, and diseased were not allowed.
✅There were 64 types of crimes called Pathimokshas, which were prohibited
✅ Women were also allowed to join.
▪️IMPORTANT BUDDHIST SCHOLARS:
✅MOGGALIPUTTA TISSA – launched ASHOKA’S dhamma campaign
✅ASVAGOSHA- wrote BUDDHACHARITA and Sanskrit drama SARIPUTRA PRAKRAN [sariputra the disciple of Buddha]
✅ NAGARJUNA - Founded madhyamik school of mahayanbuddism, gave theory of SUNYAVAD’ EMPTINESS’ and important work include ‘MULAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA’
✅BUDDHAGOSH - most important commentator of Theravada, important work is VISUDDIMAGGA.
✅DHARMAKIRTI - Teacher at Nalanda, called as ‘kant of india’
▪️UNESCO’S HERITAGE SITES RELATED TO BUDDHISM:
1. Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar
2. Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, MP
3. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya, Bihar
4. Ajanta Caves Aurangabad, Maharashtra
NOTE: Heritage City Development Scheme (HRIDAY) and identification of 3 Buddhist circuits are some of the few initiatives by central government to harness the Buddhist pilgrims to both augment the Tourism and employment opportunities.
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🔆JAINISM
✅Jainism came into prominence in 6th century B.C., when Lord Mahavira propagated the religion.
✅ The word ‘Jain’ is derived from jina or jaina which means the ‘Conqueror’.
✅ There were 24 Tirthankaras (teachers) & the first Tirthankara was Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev.
✅The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi.
✅The last – 24th Tirthkara was Vardhaman Mahavira.
✅The doctrine of Jaina is older than the Buddhist doctrine.
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✅Jainism came into prominence in 6th century B.C., when Lord Mahavira propagated the religion.
✅ The word ‘Jain’ is derived from jina or jaina which means the ‘Conqueror’.
✅ There were 24 Tirthankaras (teachers) & the first Tirthankara was Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev.
✅The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi.
✅The last – 24th Tirthkara was Vardhaman Mahavira.
✅The doctrine of Jaina is older than the Buddhist doctrine.
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▪️VARDHAMAN MAHAVIRA (539-467 BC)
✅Birth – Kundagrama near Vaishali. Belongs to Gnatrika Clan. Buddha and Mahavira were contemporaries.
✅Parents - Siddhartha and Trisala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka).
✅He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
✅Teachers - Alarakama and Udraka Ramputra.
✅ He attained Kaivalya-highest spiritual knowledge, at the age of 42 under Sal tree. Thus,
he is called Mahavir, Jina Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free
from all bonds).
✅First sermon - At Pava
✅ Died at Pava near Rajagriha at the age of 72.
✅ A symbol was associated with every Tirthankara and Mahavira’s symbol was a lion.
▪️TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA
✅Rejected authority of the Vedas & Vedic rituals.
✅Did not belive in the existance of God.
✅Believed in Karma & Transmission of Soul.
✅ Emphasised the equality but did not condemn varna system.
✅Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
▪️TENETS OF JAINISM
✅Belief in God: Jainism recognised the existence of god but placed them lower than Jina (Mahavira).
✅It did not condemn the varna system but attempted to mitigate the evils of the varna
order and the ritualistic Vedic religion.
✅According to Mahavira, a person is born in higher or lower varna as the consequence of the sins or the virtues in the previous birth. Thus, Jainism believes in the “transmigration of the soul” and the “theory of Karma.”
▪️FIVE DOCTRINES OF JAINISM
✅AHIMSA: Non-injury to a living being
✅SATYA: Do not speak a lie
✅ASTEYA: Do not steal
✅APARIGRAHA: Do not acquire property
✅ BRAHMACHARYA: Observe continence
▪️THREE JEWELS/TRIRATNA
✅It mainly aims at the attainment of liberation, for which no ritual is required.
✅ It can be attained through three principles called Three Jewels or Triratna i.e.
1. Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)
2. Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
3. Right Action (Samyakcharita)
▪️SPREAD OF JAINISM
✅ Through Sangha, consists of women & Men.
✅ Under the patronage of Chandragupta Maurya, Kharaveli of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrkutas.
✅When Bhadrabahu (Guru of Chandragupta Maurya) left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his followers.
✅After Bhadrabahu returned with his follower, Jainism spilt into two sects:
1. SWETAMBARAS: White-clad; Northerners
2. DIGAMBARAS: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners.
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✅Birth – Kundagrama near Vaishali. Belongs to Gnatrika Clan. Buddha and Mahavira were contemporaries.
✅Parents - Siddhartha and Trisala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka).
✅He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
✅Teachers - Alarakama and Udraka Ramputra.
✅ He attained Kaivalya-highest spiritual knowledge, at the age of 42 under Sal tree. Thus,
he is called Mahavir, Jina Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free
from all bonds).
✅First sermon - At Pava
✅ Died at Pava near Rajagriha at the age of 72.
✅ A symbol was associated with every Tirthankara and Mahavira’s symbol was a lion.
▪️TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA
✅Rejected authority of the Vedas & Vedic rituals.
✅Did not belive in the existance of God.
✅Believed in Karma & Transmission of Soul.
✅ Emphasised the equality but did not condemn varna system.
✅Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
▪️TENETS OF JAINISM
✅Belief in God: Jainism recognised the existence of god but placed them lower than Jina (Mahavira).
✅It did not condemn the varna system but attempted to mitigate the evils of the varna
order and the ritualistic Vedic religion.
✅According to Mahavira, a person is born in higher or lower varna as the consequence of the sins or the virtues in the previous birth. Thus, Jainism believes in the “transmigration of the soul” and the “theory of Karma.”
▪️FIVE DOCTRINES OF JAINISM
✅AHIMSA: Non-injury to a living being
✅SATYA: Do not speak a lie
✅ASTEYA: Do not steal
✅APARIGRAHA: Do not acquire property
✅ BRAHMACHARYA: Observe continence
▪️THREE JEWELS/TRIRATNA
✅It mainly aims at the attainment of liberation, for which no ritual is required.
✅ It can be attained through three principles called Three Jewels or Triratna i.e.
1. Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)
2. Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
3. Right Action (Samyakcharita)
▪️SPREAD OF JAINISM
✅ Through Sangha, consists of women & Men.
✅ Under the patronage of Chandragupta Maurya, Kharaveli of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrkutas.
✅When Bhadrabahu (Guru of Chandragupta Maurya) left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his followers.
✅After Bhadrabahu returned with his follower, Jainism spilt into two sects:
1. SWETAMBARAS: White-clad; Northerners
2. DIGAMBARAS: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners.
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▪️SECTS/SCHOOL
OF JAINISM
✅Jain order has been divided into two major sects: Digambara and Svetambara. The division occurred mainly due to famine in Magadha which compelled a group led by Bhadrabahu to move South India.
✅ During the 12years famine, the group in South India stick to the strict practices while the group in Magadha adopted a more lax attitude and started wearing white clothes.
✅After the end of famine, when the Southern group came back to Magadha, the changed practices led to the division of Jainism into two sects.
▪️DIGAMBARA
✅ Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity. Male monks do not wear clothes while female monks wear unstitched plain white sarees.
✅Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya).
✅Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
✅ Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
✅ Major Sub-Sects: Mula Sangh, Bisapantha,Terapantha, Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha.
✅Minor Sub-Sets: Gumanapantha, Totapantha.
▪️SHVETAMBARA
✅Monks wear white clothes.
✅ Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya).
✅ Believe women can achieve liberation.
✅ Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.
✅Major Sub-Sects: Murtipujaka, Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi
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OF JAINISM
✅Jain order has been divided into two major sects: Digambara and Svetambara. The division occurred mainly due to famine in Magadha which compelled a group led by Bhadrabahu to move South India.
✅ During the 12years famine, the group in South India stick to the strict practices while the group in Magadha adopted a more lax attitude and started wearing white clothes.
✅After the end of famine, when the Southern group came back to Magadha, the changed practices led to the division of Jainism into two sects.
▪️DIGAMBARA
✅ Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity. Male monks do not wear clothes while female monks wear unstitched plain white sarees.
✅Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya).
✅Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
✅ Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
✅ Major Sub-Sects: Mula Sangh, Bisapantha,Terapantha, Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha.
✅Minor Sub-Sets: Gumanapantha, Totapantha.
▪️SHVETAMBARA
✅Monks wear white clothes.
✅ Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya).
✅ Believe women can achieve liberation.
✅ Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.
✅Major Sub-Sects: Murtipujaka, Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi
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🔆Important terms related To Jainism
✅ASRAV- Inflow of karmas to the soul that occurs at every second in life.
✅SAMVARA- Stoppage of the influx of the material karmas into the soul consciousness.
✅ NIRJARA - Shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the atma (soul), essential for breaking free from samsara, the cycle of birth-death and rebirth, by achieving moksha, liberation. It is one of the seven fundamental principles, or Tattva in Jain philosophy.
✅SALLEKHANA- It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of food
and liquids. Also Called Santhara.
✅KAIVALYA, also known as Kevala Jnana, means omniscience in Jainism and is roughly translated as complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
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✅ASRAV- Inflow of karmas to the soul that occurs at every second in life.
✅SAMVARA- Stoppage of the influx of the material karmas into the soul consciousness.
✅ NIRJARA - Shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the atma (soul), essential for breaking free from samsara, the cycle of birth-death and rebirth, by achieving moksha, liberation. It is one of the seven fundamental principles, or Tattva in Jain philosophy.
✅SALLEKHANA- It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of food
and liquids. Also Called Santhara.
✅KAIVALYA, also known as Kevala Jnana, means omniscience in Jainism and is roughly translated as complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
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🔆VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE (1336 -1646 AD)
✅ It was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka (with the blessings of Guru Vidyaranya) of the Sangama dynasty who originally served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal.
✅They later proclaimed their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River named it “Vijayanagar” (City of Victory)
✅ Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Saivism. Virupaksha was their family God. Later they came under
the influence of Vaishnavism. However, Siva continued to be worshipped.
✅There was constant conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and Bahamani kingdom over Raichur doab (fertile region between Krishna and Tungabhadra), Tungabhadra doab (fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta) & Marathwada.
✅ In the south its main rivals were the Sultans of Madurai.
✅ During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565 which marked an end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
✅ The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III
▪️Four Dynasties ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 TO 1672:
✅DESCRIPTION Sangama (1336-1485)
Sangama was the first dynasty to rule over the Vijaynagara empire. The founders of the empire, Harihar I and Bukka belonged to this dynasty. It ruled from 1334 AD to 1485 AD.
✅Saluva (1485-1505)
Saluva dynasty, founded by Narasimha, succeeded Sangama dynasty as the
second dynasty of the empire. It ruled from 1485 to 1505 AD. They ruled over almost the whole South India.
✅Tuluva (1505-1570)
Tuluva, founded by Vir Narsimha, was the third dynasty, which ruled Vijayanagar Empire. It ruled from Tuluva dynasty. The most famous king of Vijayanagar Empire, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to this dynasty.
✅Aravidu (1570-1650)
Aravidu, founded by Tirumala, was the fourth and last Hindu dynasty to rule Vijayanagar kingdom in South India.
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✅ It was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka (with the blessings of Guru Vidyaranya) of the Sangama dynasty who originally served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal.
✅They later proclaimed their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River named it “Vijayanagar” (City of Victory)
✅ Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Saivism. Virupaksha was their family God. Later they came under
the influence of Vaishnavism. However, Siva continued to be worshipped.
✅There was constant conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and Bahamani kingdom over Raichur doab (fertile region between Krishna and Tungabhadra), Tungabhadra doab (fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta) & Marathwada.
✅ In the south its main rivals were the Sultans of Madurai.
✅ During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565 which marked an end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
✅ The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III
▪️Four Dynasties ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 TO 1672:
✅DESCRIPTION Sangama (1336-1485)
Sangama was the first dynasty to rule over the Vijaynagara empire. The founders of the empire, Harihar I and Bukka belonged to this dynasty. It ruled from 1334 AD to 1485 AD.
✅Saluva (1485-1505)
Saluva dynasty, founded by Narasimha, succeeded Sangama dynasty as the
second dynasty of the empire. It ruled from 1485 to 1505 AD. They ruled over almost the whole South India.
✅Tuluva (1505-1570)
Tuluva, founded by Vir Narsimha, was the third dynasty, which ruled Vijayanagar Empire. It ruled from Tuluva dynasty. The most famous king of Vijayanagar Empire, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to this dynasty.
✅Aravidu (1570-1650)
Aravidu, founded by Tirumala, was the fourth and last Hindu dynasty to rule Vijayanagar kingdom in South India.
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🔆IMPORTANT RULERS
▪️Praudhadevaraya (Devaraya II)
✅The most famous king from Sangama dynasty.
✅Titles: ‘Elephant Hunter’, ‘Dakshinapathada Chakravarthi’.
✅Extended Vijayanagara from Gulbarga to Sri Lanka & Telangana to Kerala.
✅His commander: Lakkanna Dandesha.
▪️Krishna Devaraya (1509-1529 AD)
✅The most famous king Vijayanagara Empire (from Tuluva dynasty).
✅He is also known as Andhra Bhoja
✅Waged war against Bahamani kingdom & kept them under check.
✅ Liberated Mohammad Shah & assumed the title “Yavanarjya Prathishtapanacharya”.
✅The author of Manu Charitramu was the greatest among Ashtadiggajas.
✅ His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in the south; the Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in the east.
✅ He had a cordial relationship with Portuguese.
✅He authored “Amuktamalyada” (Telgu work on polity) and “Jambavati
Kalyanam” (Sanskrit drama).
✅Krishna Deva Raya was a great builder as well. He built the Hazara Rama temple and the Vittalaswami temple.
✅Patronized Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit, and Tamil scholars & poets.
✅He had 8 eminent scholars ‘Ashtadiggajas’ at his royal court.
✅He built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi.
▪️“ASHTADIGGAJAS” of
Krishna Devaraya
✅A group of eight scholars adorned Krishnadevaraya’s court and they were:
1. Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
2. Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
3. Madayagari Mallana
4. Dhurjati
5. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu
6. Pingali Surana
7. RamarajaBhushana
8. Tenali Ramakrishna
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▪️Praudhadevaraya (Devaraya II)
✅The most famous king from Sangama dynasty.
✅Titles: ‘Elephant Hunter’, ‘Dakshinapathada Chakravarthi’.
✅Extended Vijayanagara from Gulbarga to Sri Lanka & Telangana to Kerala.
✅His commander: Lakkanna Dandesha.
▪️Krishna Devaraya (1509-1529 AD)
✅The most famous king Vijayanagara Empire (from Tuluva dynasty).
✅He is also known as Andhra Bhoja
✅Waged war against Bahamani kingdom & kept them under check.
✅ Liberated Mohammad Shah & assumed the title “Yavanarjya Prathishtapanacharya”.
✅The author of Manu Charitramu was the greatest among Ashtadiggajas.
✅ His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in the south; the Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in the east.
✅ He had a cordial relationship with Portuguese.
✅He authored “Amuktamalyada” (Telgu work on polity) and “Jambavati
Kalyanam” (Sanskrit drama).
✅Krishna Deva Raya was a great builder as well. He built the Hazara Rama temple and the Vittalaswami temple.
✅Patronized Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit, and Tamil scholars & poets.
✅He had 8 eminent scholars ‘Ashtadiggajas’ at his royal court.
✅He built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi.
▪️“ASHTADIGGAJAS” of
Krishna Devaraya
✅A group of eight scholars adorned Krishnadevaraya’s court and they were:
1. Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
2. Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
3. Madayagari Mallana
4. Dhurjati
5. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu
6. Pingali Surana
7. RamarajaBhushana
8. Tenali Ramakrishna
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▪️ADMINISTRATION:
✅The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial & legislative matters.
✅The succession to the throne was hereditary.
✅Administrative units divided as: Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas and finally into Gramas.
✅Mandaleshwar or Nayaka was the governor of Mandalam.
✅He had considerable autonomy- had right to issue coins of small denominations & right to impose new tax or remit old one.
✅ Sources of income: land revenue, tributes, and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs at ports, & taxes on various professions.
✅The army consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants.
✅ Nayankar System - The top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks/Poligars.
✅They were granted land in lieu of their services which were called Amaram.
✅Manyams were tax free lands.
✅A body of 12 functionaries known as Ayangars, conducted village affairs.
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✅The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial & legislative matters.
✅The succession to the throne was hereditary.
✅Administrative units divided as: Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas and finally into Gramas.
✅Mandaleshwar or Nayaka was the governor of Mandalam.
✅He had considerable autonomy- had right to issue coins of small denominations & right to impose new tax or remit old one.
✅ Sources of income: land revenue, tributes, and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs at ports, & taxes on various professions.
✅The army consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants.
✅ Nayankar System - The top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks/Poligars.
✅They were granted land in lieu of their services which were called Amaram.
✅Manyams were tax free lands.
✅A body of 12 functionaries known as Ayangars, conducted village affairs.
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▪️SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS:
✅The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family deity.
✅The chief gold coin was the varaha or pagoda. The Perta was half a Varaha. Fanam was one tenth a pertha.
✅Tar was a silver coin. Jittal was a copper coin.
✅The chief items of export were cotton, silk, spices, rice, saltpeter and sugar.
✅The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral etc.
✅The art of shipbuilding had developed.
▪️POSITION OF WOMEN:
✅Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and literary life of the empire.
✅Women even went to battles.
✅It was the only empire in Medieval India which employed women in state services.
✅Widow re-marriage was promoted.
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✅The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family deity.
✅The chief gold coin was the varaha or pagoda. The Perta was half a Varaha. Fanam was one tenth a pertha.
✅Tar was a silver coin. Jittal was a copper coin.
✅The chief items of export were cotton, silk, spices, rice, saltpeter and sugar.
✅The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral etc.
✅The art of shipbuilding had developed.
▪️POSITION OF WOMEN:
✅Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and literary life of the empire.
✅Women even went to battles.
✅It was the only empire in Medieval India which employed women in state services.
✅Widow re-marriage was promoted.
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▪️CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS:
✅The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises.
✅The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features.
✅The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars.
✅The most important temples built: Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples, the Stone chariot at Hampi.
✅The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram.
✅Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions.
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✅The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises.
✅The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features.
✅The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars.
✅The most important temples built: Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples, the Stone chariot at Hampi.
✅The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram.
✅Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions.
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▪️LIST OF FOREIGN TRAVELLERS VISITED VIJAYANAGARA:
✅Abu Abdullah/ lbn Batuta (Book:Rihla) - Morocco - Harihara I
✅Nicolo de Conti - Italy - Devaraya-II
✅Abdur Razzaq - Persia - Devaraya-II
✅Athanasius Nikitin - Russia - Virupaksha Raya II
✅Ludvico de Vorthema - Italy - Krishna Deva Raya
✅Duarte Barbosa - Portugal - Krishna Deva Raya
✅Dominigo Paes - Portugal - Krishna Deva Raya
✅Fernao Nuniz - Portugal - Achyuta Deva Raya
✅Marco Polo - Venice - Achyuta Deva Raya
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✅Abu Abdullah/ lbn Batuta (Book:Rihla) - Morocco - Harihara I
✅Nicolo de Conti - Italy - Devaraya-II
✅Abdur Razzaq - Persia - Devaraya-II
✅Athanasius Nikitin - Russia - Virupaksha Raya II
✅Ludvico de Vorthema - Italy - Krishna Deva Raya
✅Duarte Barbosa - Portugal - Krishna Deva Raya
✅Dominigo Paes - Portugal - Krishna Deva Raya
✅Fernao Nuniz - Portugal - Achyuta Deva Raya
✅Marco Polo - Venice - Achyuta Deva Raya
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🔆BAHMANI KINGDOMS (c.1347- 1525 CE)
✅The Bahmani Sultanate was a Persianised Muslim state of the Deccan in South India and one of the major
medieval Indian kingdoms.
✅Though the region was ruled by a Muslim it was not a 'Muslim State' . Hindus were also part of it.
✅ The nobles of Bahmani kingdom were categorized in two categories: Afaquis and Deccanis. Deccanis were
nobles of native origin while Afaquis had foreign origin.
✅ It was founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (in 1347), also known as Hasan Gangu, revolting against
the Delhi Sultanate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
✅Bahamani kingdom acted as a cultural link between the South & the North.
✅The Kingdom stretched from north to south from the Wainganga river to Krishna and east to west from Bhongir to Daulatabad.
✅There was total 14 Bahaman Sultans.
✅The Bahmani Empire was always at war with Vijayanagara Empire for control over Deccan. Firoz shah invaded Vijaynagar and defeated Krishna Deva Raya I.
✅Ahmad Shah Wali later shifted Capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
✅ Muhammad Shah III became the sultan at the age of 9 after death of his brother Nizam Shah and Mahmud Gawan served as Prime Minister.
✅Bahmani Empire reached its zenith during the time of Mahmud Gawan.
✅Kalimullah was the last king of the Bahmani dynasty.
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✅The Bahmani Sultanate was a Persianised Muslim state of the Deccan in South India and one of the major
medieval Indian kingdoms.
✅Though the region was ruled by a Muslim it was not a 'Muslim State' . Hindus were also part of it.
✅ The nobles of Bahmani kingdom were categorized in two categories: Afaquis and Deccanis. Deccanis were
nobles of native origin while Afaquis had foreign origin.
✅ It was founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (in 1347), also known as Hasan Gangu, revolting against
the Delhi Sultanate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
✅Bahamani kingdom acted as a cultural link between the South & the North.
✅The Kingdom stretched from north to south from the Wainganga river to Krishna and east to west from Bhongir to Daulatabad.
✅There was total 14 Bahaman Sultans.
✅The Bahmani Empire was always at war with Vijayanagara Empire for control over Deccan. Firoz shah invaded Vijaynagar and defeated Krishna Deva Raya I.
✅Ahmad Shah Wali later shifted Capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
✅ Muhammad Shah III became the sultan at the age of 9 after death of his brother Nizam Shah and Mahmud Gawan served as Prime Minister.
✅Bahmani Empire reached its zenith during the time of Mahmud Gawan.
✅Kalimullah was the last king of the Bahmani dynasty.
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▪️Mahmud Gawan:
✅He was Iranian by birth and was a trader. He was granted title of Malik-ul-Tujjar (Chiefs of Merchants) by Humayun Shah.
✅For almost 20 years he dominated the state affairs of the Bahamani. Under his leadership Bahamani kingdom saw resurgence.
✅He divided the kingdom into eight provinces called Tarafs. Each Taraf was governed by the Tarafdar. The salary was paid in cash or assigning a Jagir.
✅A tract of land called Khalisa was set apart for expenses of the Sultan.
✅Introduced use of Gunpowder in war against Vijaynagar Kings.
✅He built a college at Bidar in Persian Style architecture.
✅Executed in 1481 by Muhammad Shah, Deccan nobles plotted against him.
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✅He was Iranian by birth and was a trader. He was granted title of Malik-ul-Tujjar (Chiefs of Merchants) by Humayun Shah.
✅For almost 20 years he dominated the state affairs of the Bahamani. Under his leadership Bahamani kingdom saw resurgence.
✅He divided the kingdom into eight provinces called Tarafs. Each Taraf was governed by the Tarafdar. The salary was paid in cash or assigning a Jagir.
✅A tract of land called Khalisa was set apart for expenses of the Sultan.
✅Introduced use of Gunpowder in war against Vijaynagar Kings.
✅He built a college at Bidar in Persian Style architecture.
✅Executed in 1481 by Muhammad Shah, Deccan nobles plotted against him.
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✅After Gawan’s Execution, Bahmani kingdom disintegrated into Five Kingdoms (Known as Deccan Sultanates):
▪️Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar (1490-1633 AD):
✅Founder - Ahmad Nizam Shah.
✅It was conquered & annexed by Shah Jahan in 1633.
▪️Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1490 -1686 AD)
✅Founder - Yusuf Adil Shah.
✅Famous Gol Gumbaz was built by Muhammad Adil Shah.
✅ Bijapur was conquered & annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.
▪️Qutub Shahis of Golconda
(1518 - 1687 AD):
✅Founder – Muhammad Quli Qutub shah.
✅He built famous Golconda fort and made it capital.
✅Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah founded the city Hyderabad (originally known as Bhagyanagar) and also built Charminar.
✅It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.
▪️Imad Shahis of Berar (1490 - 1574 AD)
✅Founder – Fatullah khan Imad ul Mulk.
✅Capital – Daulatabad
✅Annexed by rulers of Ahmednagar.
▪️Barid Shahis of Bidar (1528 - 1619 AD) :
✅Founder – Ali Barid
✅Annexed by Bijapur rulers.
▪️ART & ARCHITECTURE:
✅The architecture was highly influenced by Persian architecture. They invited architects from Persia,
Turkey and Arabia.
✅The Gulbarga fort & Jama Masjid in Gulbarga, Bidar Fort and Madrasa by Mahmud Gawanin Bidar, are the
major architectural contributions.
✅ Gol Ghumaz was built by Muhammad Adil Shah; it is famous for so called “Whispering Gallery”
✅Ibrahum Adil Shah introduced ‘Dakhini’ in place of Persian as court language.
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▪️Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar (1490-1633 AD):
✅Founder - Ahmad Nizam Shah.
✅It was conquered & annexed by Shah Jahan in 1633.
▪️Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1490 -1686 AD)
✅Founder - Yusuf Adil Shah.
✅Famous Gol Gumbaz was built by Muhammad Adil Shah.
✅ Bijapur was conquered & annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.
▪️Qutub Shahis of Golconda
(1518 - 1687 AD):
✅Founder – Muhammad Quli Qutub shah.
✅He built famous Golconda fort and made it capital.
✅Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah founded the city Hyderabad (originally known as Bhagyanagar) and also built Charminar.
✅It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.
▪️Imad Shahis of Berar (1490 - 1574 AD)
✅Founder – Fatullah khan Imad ul Mulk.
✅Capital – Daulatabad
✅Annexed by rulers of Ahmednagar.
▪️Barid Shahis of Bidar (1528 - 1619 AD) :
✅Founder – Ali Barid
✅Annexed by Bijapur rulers.
▪️ART & ARCHITECTURE:
✅The architecture was highly influenced by Persian architecture. They invited architects from Persia,
Turkey and Arabia.
✅The Gulbarga fort & Jama Masjid in Gulbarga, Bidar Fort and Madrasa by Mahmud Gawanin Bidar, are the
major architectural contributions.
✅ Gol Ghumaz was built by Muhammad Adil Shah; it is famous for so called “Whispering Gallery”
✅Ibrahum Adil Shah introduced ‘Dakhini’ in place of Persian as court language.
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🔆Earliest Sanskrit Inscription Found In South India
✅Why In News: The Epigraphy Branch of the Archaeological Survey of India has found the earliest epigraphic evidence for the Saptamatrika cult.
✅ It was recently discovered in Chebrolu village in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh.
▪️Saptamatrikas:
✅ Saptamatrikas are a group of seven female deities worshipped in Hinduism as personifying the energy
of their respective consorts.
✅ There are references of Saptamatrika worship in the early Kadamba copper plates and the early Chalukyas
and Eastern Chalukya copper plates.
✅ The new discovery predates them by almost 200 years.
▪️Chebrolu Inscription details:
✅It is the earliest Sanskrit inscription to have been discovered in South India.
✅Before this discovery, the Nagarjunakonda inscription of Ikshavaku king Ehavala Chantamula issued in his 11th regnal year corresponding to the 4th century A.D. was considered the earliest Sanskrit inscription in South India.
✅The inscription came to light when some local villagers informed the authorities of the presence of a pillar with some engravings when they were restoring and repairing the local Bheemeshwara temple.
✅The inscription is in Sanskrit and in Brahmi characters .
✅ It was issued by Satavahana king Vijaya in 207 A.D.
✅It records the construction of a prasada (temple), a mandapa and consecration of images on the southern side of the temple by a person named Kartika for the merit of the king at the temple of Bhagavathi (Goddess) Saktimatruka (Saptamatrika) at Tambrape ( the ancient name of Chebrolou).
✅The verification of all the available records proved that the Chebrolu inscription of Satavahana king Vijaya issued in his 5th regnal year – 207 A.D. — is the earliest datable Sanskrit inscription from South India.
✅The place also yielded another inscription in Prakrit language and of Brahmi characters and belongs to the 1st century A.D.
▪️Satavahanas:
✅They are an ancient Indian dynasty based In the Deccan.
✅They established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryas.
✅Their rule lasted for about 450 years.
✅They were also known as the Andhras.
✅The Puranas and the Nasik and Nanaghad inscriptions remain important sources for the history of Satavahanas.
✅The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the present-day Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. At different times, their rule extended to parts of modern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. The dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati (Dharanikota).
✅The founderof the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka.
✅The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni.
✅They patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism.
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✅Why In News: The Epigraphy Branch of the Archaeological Survey of India has found the earliest epigraphic evidence for the Saptamatrika cult.
✅ It was recently discovered in Chebrolu village in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh.
▪️Saptamatrikas:
✅ Saptamatrikas are a group of seven female deities worshipped in Hinduism as personifying the energy
of their respective consorts.
✅ There are references of Saptamatrika worship in the early Kadamba copper plates and the early Chalukyas
and Eastern Chalukya copper plates.
✅ The new discovery predates them by almost 200 years.
▪️Chebrolu Inscription details:
✅It is the earliest Sanskrit inscription to have been discovered in South India.
✅Before this discovery, the Nagarjunakonda inscription of Ikshavaku king Ehavala Chantamula issued in his 11th regnal year corresponding to the 4th century A.D. was considered the earliest Sanskrit inscription in South India.
✅The inscription came to light when some local villagers informed the authorities of the presence of a pillar with some engravings when they were restoring and repairing the local Bheemeshwara temple.
✅The inscription is in Sanskrit and in Brahmi characters .
✅ It was issued by Satavahana king Vijaya in 207 A.D.
✅It records the construction of a prasada (temple), a mandapa and consecration of images on the southern side of the temple by a person named Kartika for the merit of the king at the temple of Bhagavathi (Goddess) Saktimatruka (Saptamatrika) at Tambrape ( the ancient name of Chebrolou).
✅The verification of all the available records proved that the Chebrolu inscription of Satavahana king Vijaya issued in his 5th regnal year – 207 A.D. — is the earliest datable Sanskrit inscription from South India.
✅The place also yielded another inscription in Prakrit language and of Brahmi characters and belongs to the 1st century A.D.
▪️Satavahanas:
✅They are an ancient Indian dynasty based In the Deccan.
✅They established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryas.
✅Their rule lasted for about 450 years.
✅They were also known as the Andhras.
✅The Puranas and the Nasik and Nanaghad inscriptions remain important sources for the history of Satavahanas.
✅The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the present-day Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. At different times, their rule extended to parts of modern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. The dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati (Dharanikota).
✅The founderof the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka.
✅The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni.
✅They patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism.
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🔆 Key Facts on the Indus Script: Unraveling an Ancient Mystery
📍 Overview of the Writing System:
✅ The Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE) developed an advanced writing system primarily seen on seals and pottery.
✅ Over 3,500 artifacts featuring 676 distinct symbols have been discovered, highlighting the complexity of this ancient culture.
📍 Challenges in Decipherment:
✅ No Rosetta Stone: The absence of a bilingual text like the Rosetta Stone has hindered efforts to decode the script.
✅ Short Inscriptions: Most inscriptions average only five characters, providing limited context for interpretation.
✅ Purpose of the Script: Scholars are divided on its function—whether it represents a language or a symbolic system for trade and administration.
✅ Unknown Language: The language behind the script remains uncertain, with theories linking it to Dravidian languages, an unknown linguistic family, or even multiple languages.
📍 Key Scholarly Efforts:
✅ Finnish scholar Asko Parpola has conducted extensive research, exploring links between the Indus script and Dravidian languages.
✅ Modern approaches, including AI-based pattern recognition and computational linguistics, are being applied to analyze the script's structure and meaning.
📍 Importance of Deciphering the Script:
✅ Deciphering the script could unlock valuable insights into the culture, economy, and governance of the Indus Valley Civilization.
✅ It could reveal details about their social structure, belief systems, and linguistic connections to modern South Asia.
📍 Recent Developments:
✅ In 2024, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin announced a ₹8 crore (~$1 million) prize for anyone who can successfully decipher the script.
✅ This initiative underscores the global significance of decoding the Indus script and its potential to deepen understanding of India’s historical and linguistic heritage.
🔍 The Path Forward:
✅ The Indus script remains one of the greatest challenges in archaeology and linguistics.
✅ Advances in technology, AI, and interdisciplinary research bring hope that this ancient mystery will one day be solved.
#IndusScript #Ancient_History #GS1 #Archaeology #history #CulturalHeritage
📍 Overview of the Writing System:
✅ The Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE) developed an advanced writing system primarily seen on seals and pottery.
✅ Over 3,500 artifacts featuring 676 distinct symbols have been discovered, highlighting the complexity of this ancient culture.
📍 Challenges in Decipherment:
✅ No Rosetta Stone: The absence of a bilingual text like the Rosetta Stone has hindered efforts to decode the script.
✅ Short Inscriptions: Most inscriptions average only five characters, providing limited context for interpretation.
✅ Purpose of the Script: Scholars are divided on its function—whether it represents a language or a symbolic system for trade and administration.
✅ Unknown Language: The language behind the script remains uncertain, with theories linking it to Dravidian languages, an unknown linguistic family, or even multiple languages.
📍 Key Scholarly Efforts:
✅ Finnish scholar Asko Parpola has conducted extensive research, exploring links between the Indus script and Dravidian languages.
✅ Modern approaches, including AI-based pattern recognition and computational linguistics, are being applied to analyze the script's structure and meaning.
📍 Importance of Deciphering the Script:
✅ Deciphering the script could unlock valuable insights into the culture, economy, and governance of the Indus Valley Civilization.
✅ It could reveal details about their social structure, belief systems, and linguistic connections to modern South Asia.
📍 Recent Developments:
✅ In 2024, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin announced a ₹8 crore (~$1 million) prize for anyone who can successfully decipher the script.
✅ This initiative underscores the global significance of decoding the Indus script and its potential to deepen understanding of India’s historical and linguistic heritage.
🔍 The Path Forward:
✅ The Indus script remains one of the greatest challenges in archaeology and linguistics.
✅ Advances in technology, AI, and interdisciplinary research bring hope that this ancient mystery will one day be solved.
#IndusScript #Ancient_History #GS1 #Archaeology #history #CulturalHeritage
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🔆 Key Facts on the Indus Script: Unraveling an Ancient Mystery
📍 Overview of the Writing System:
✅ The Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE) developed an advanced writing system primarily seen on seals and pottery.
✅ Over 3,500 artifacts featuring 676 distinct symbols have been discovered, highlighting the complexity of this ancient culture.
📍 Challenges in Decipherment:
✅ No Rosetta Stone: The absence of a bilingual text like the Rosetta Stone has hindered efforts to decode the script.
✅ Short Inscriptions: Most inscriptions average only five characters, providing limited context for interpretation.
✅ Purpose of the Script: Scholars are divided on its function—whether it represents a language or a symbolic system for trade and administration.
✅ Unknown Language: The language behind the script remains uncertain, with theories linking it to Dravidian languages, an unknown linguistic family, or even multiple languages.
📍 Key Scholarly Efforts:
✅ Finnish scholar Asko Parpola has conducted extensive research, exploring links between the Indus script and Dravidian languages.
✅ Modern approaches, including AI-based pattern recognition and computational linguistics, are being applied to analyze the script's structure and meaning.
📍 Importance of Deciphering the Script:
✅ Deciphering the script could unlock valuable insights into the culture, economy, and governance of the Indus Valley Civilization.
✅ It could reveal details about their social structure, belief systems, and linguistic connections to modern South Asia.
📍 Recent Developments:
✅ In 2024, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin announced a ₹8 crore (~$1 million) prize for anyone who can successfully decipher the script.
✅ This initiative underscores the global significance of decoding the Indus script and its potential to deepen understanding of India’s historical and linguistic heritage.
🔍 The Path Forward:
✅ The Indus script remains one of the greatest challenges in archaeology and linguistics.
✅ Advances in technology, AI, and interdisciplinary research bring hope that this ancient mystery will one day be solved.
#IndusScript #Ancient_History #GS1 #Archaeology #history #CulturalHeritage
📍 Overview of the Writing System:
✅ The Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE) developed an advanced writing system primarily seen on seals and pottery.
✅ Over 3,500 artifacts featuring 676 distinct symbols have been discovered, highlighting the complexity of this ancient culture.
📍 Challenges in Decipherment:
✅ No Rosetta Stone: The absence of a bilingual text like the Rosetta Stone has hindered efforts to decode the script.
✅ Short Inscriptions: Most inscriptions average only five characters, providing limited context for interpretation.
✅ Purpose of the Script: Scholars are divided on its function—whether it represents a language or a symbolic system for trade and administration.
✅ Unknown Language: The language behind the script remains uncertain, with theories linking it to Dravidian languages, an unknown linguistic family, or even multiple languages.
📍 Key Scholarly Efforts:
✅ Finnish scholar Asko Parpola has conducted extensive research, exploring links between the Indus script and Dravidian languages.
✅ Modern approaches, including AI-based pattern recognition and computational linguistics, are being applied to analyze the script's structure and meaning.
📍 Importance of Deciphering the Script:
✅ Deciphering the script could unlock valuable insights into the culture, economy, and governance of the Indus Valley Civilization.
✅ It could reveal details about their social structure, belief systems, and linguistic connections to modern South Asia.
📍 Recent Developments:
✅ In 2024, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin announced a ₹8 crore (~$1 million) prize for anyone who can successfully decipher the script.
✅ This initiative underscores the global significance of decoding the Indus script and its potential to deepen understanding of India’s historical and linguistic heritage.
🔍 The Path Forward:
✅ The Indus script remains one of the greatest challenges in archaeology and linguistics.
✅ Advances in technology, AI, and interdisciplinary research bring hope that this ancient mystery will one day be solved.
#IndusScript #Ancient_History #GS1 #Archaeology #history #CulturalHeritage
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